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BACKGROUND: Early adolescent onset of substance use is a robust predictor of future substance use disorders. We examined the relation between age of substance use initiation and resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) of the core reward processing (nucleus accumbens; NAcc) to cognitive control (prefrontal cortex; PFC) brain networks. METHOD: Adolescents in a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth reported their substance use annually from ages 10 to 16 years. At age 16, 69 adolescents participated in a resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging scan. Seed-based correlational analyses were conducted using regions of interest in bilateral NAcc. RESULTS: The earlier that adolescents initiated substance use, the stronger the connectivity between bilateral NAcc and right dorsolateral PFC, right dorsomedial PFC, right pre-supplementary motor area, right inferior parietal lobule, and left medial temporal gyrus. DISCUSSION: The regions that demonstrated significant positive linear relationships between the number of adolescent years using substances and connectivity with NAcc are nodes in the right frontoparietal network, which is central to cognitive control. The coupling of reward and cognitive control networks may be a mechanism through which earlier onset of substance use is related to brain function over time, a trajectory that may be implicated in subsequent substance use disorders. Language: en

Self-esteem is one of the most widely studied and oldest constructs in scientific psychology. Accordingly, a number of measures have been used over the past century. Despite the wide variety of measures that have appeared in the literature, the majority of researchers use either the Rosenberg (1989) Self-Esteem scale or Harter's (e.g., Harter & Pike, 1988) Self-Perception Profile series of scales. This chapter provides a detailed description of these two measures that is updated from the last edition of the chapter. We also provide extensive coverage of three additional scales that were either not available for the last edition of the chapter or not extensively reviewed: the Self-Liking and Self-Competence Questionnaires (e.g., Tafarodi & Swann, 1995), the series of Self-Description Questionnaires (e.g., Marsh, 1992a), and the Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale (Robins et al., 2001). We provide a critical evaluation of each measure and make recommendations for future research.

1. Rank-order stability of personality and self-esteem across the life span1.1. Personality1.2. Self-esteem2. Mean-level changes in personality and self-esteem across the life course2.1. Personality2.2. Self-esteem2.2.1. Childhood2.2.2. Adolescence2.2.3. Adulthood2.2.4. Old age3. Socio-contextual factors that influence personality and self-esteem change3.1. Work experiences3.2. Relationship experiences4. Conclusion

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on the self-perception accuracy. The scientific study of self-perception accuracy requires an understanding of the person at three levels— (1) as object, (2) as perceiver, (3) and as researcher. At each level, philosophical, conceptual, and methodological issues must be considered. There are two conceptual frameworks, one that organizes the various criteria used by researchers to assess the accuracy of self-perception, and another that organizes the different theoretical accounts of the self-perception process. The first framework is classified into six broad categories: (1) operational, (2) social consensus, (3) pragmatic, (4) normative models, (5) information processing, and (6) internal consistency. Operational criteria are difficult to find in the domain of personality. The use of social consensus criteria reflects the folk belief that self-insight means seeing oneself as others see one. The functional criteria are based on a judgment that can be considered accurate if it helps an individual adapt in the real world. Normative models are commonly used to evaluate the quality of human judgment. Information processing criteria provides a powerful framework for studying the appropriateness of people's use of informational cues. Internal consistency criteria examine whether individual's self-perceptions are consistent with their other beliefs. The second framework characterizes the self-perception process from four different theoretical perspectives—the scientist, the consistency seeker, the politician, and the egoist.