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Colloidal gold immunochromatographic assay (CGIA) is commonly used for the on-site detection of β-agonists that are sometimes used illegally as feed additives in swine diets. However, few studies have evaluated the causes of false-positive results that sometimes occur when applying CGIA in agricultural settings. In this study, we investigated if this false-positive phenomenon is related to the addition of certain traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) to swine feed. We established and verified an extraction method for TCMs, and then applied CGIA to detect β-agonists in the extracts of 105 TCMs and in the urine of swine dosed with TCMs, respectively. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used to validate the results of the urine samples tested positive for β-agonists using CGIA. The results were also verified using TCMs and colloidal gold test strips produced by different manufacturers. The extracts of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium Viride, Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium, Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex, Chaenomelis Fructus, and Rhodiolae Crenulatae Radix Et Rhizoma were tested positive for β-agonists. Meanwhile, the addition of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium Viride and Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium to swine feed resulted in false-positive results for β-agonists in swine urine. The results provide a new way to explain false-positive CGIA results and provide valuable information for livestock feeding programs.

Background The “Treatise on the spleen and stomach” (Pí Wèi Lùn) is the work of the scholar and physician Li Gao (Jin-Yuan dynasties, 1115–1368 C.E., China). Li Gao described a clinical presentation that today would fall under the diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and proposed the treatment with herbal medicine and nutritional guidelines. The PWL is well known for its application in the treatment of MS and autoimmune conditions. However, this theoretical “MS” has not yet been analyzed through a scientific investigation, and research on its herbal formulations for MS is scant. Methods We analyzed the PWL “MS” clinical presentation considering biomedical diagnostic criteria and neurological correlates. To support our review, we searched Pubmed for studies on the PWL main herbal formulas and their herbs/isolates used for the believed “MS” which treated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)/MS. Results We found a very close correlation between the PWL “MS” and the current MS diagnosis. Twenty four studies on the herbs-isolates showed significant amelioration of EAE, neuronal damage, and demyelination. Discussion Collectively, Astragali radix, Ginseng radix, Glycyrrhizae radix, and berberine containing Phellodendri cortex reduced the severity of EAE through different signaling pathways and mechanisms of action. These herbs provided a wide range of properties such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-microglial activation, anti-infiltration of leukocytes, apoptotic/anti-apoptotic balance, and neuronal protection. Conclusion Our review proposes that the PWL is the first record of MS in the medical literature. Its formulas and herbs-isolates offer a fertile area for MS research and an invaluable potential for its treatment., Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • We propose that the Pí Wèi Lùn is the first record of MS in the medical literature. • All twenty four studies on the PWL’s selected herbs/isolates showed improvement of EAE. • Different signaling pathways/mechanisms of action provided synergistic properties. • In the PWL, the gastrointestinal system is key for MS and science supports it. • The PWL offers a fertile area of research and enormous potential for MS treatment.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) has been shown to play an important role in the immune escape process of tumors, and therefore is considered as a promising target for tumor immunotherapy. In this study, off-line and on-line capillary electrophoresis methods were developed for IDO1 inhibitors screening from natural product extracts. The optimized separation conditions of CE were achieved with 32 mM sodium tetraborate (pH 9.22) as background electrolyte, using a separation voltage of 21 kV. The off-line CE method was verified by the determination of enzymatic kinetic parameters and inhibitory mechanisms of two known inhibitors. A partial filling on-line CE method combined with rapid polarity switching was used for rapid screening of IDO1 inhibitors. The whole reaction and separation process was completed within 5 min. The on-line CE screening results showed that six of 18 natural products had inhibitory effect on IDO1, namely Carthamus tinctorius, Schisandra chinensis, Raisin, Coffee, Hawthorn and Radix angelicae sinensis. The results of on-line CE experiments were consistent with the off-line results, which proved the practicability and effectiveness of the method for inhibitors screening. ispartof: JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A vol:1651 ispartof: location:Netherlands status: published

Background: Danggui Beimu Kushen Wan (DBKW) was initially known for difficult urination in pregnancy and has been widely used for prostate disorders in modern days. This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the implications of DBKW in traditional evidence. Methods: The Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicine was searched to identify the ingredients, dosage, etiologies, pathogeneses, actions and indications related to DBKW documented in ancient books. Descriptive summary was provided to their characteristics. Results: A total of 41 texts in 36 classic books were included. Two etiologies and 10 pathogeneses were investigated. All the identified formulas contain Angelicae Sinensis Radix, Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus and Sophorae Flavescentis Radix with the ratio of 1:1:1. The treatment dosage is three to 10 pills each time. The primary indication of DBKW is difficult urination with heat stagnation. Nine included texts specified that this formula could also be used for male. Conclusion: Included classic literature has provided fundamental evidence for the management of difficult urination in female and male. Further studies should investigate its mechanisms of actions for difficult urination related conditions, such as prostate disorders. Keywords: Herbal medicine, Prostate disorder, Urination, Classic literature, Text mining.

Codonopsis Radix is a traditional Chinese medicine best known for its effects in treating digestive, cardiovascular, immunological and hematopoitic diseases. It also appears in the traditional Chinese medical prescriptions against ascites. However, the physiological effect and molecular mechanism of Codonopsis Radix in water and electrolytes homeostasis have not been well studied. We found that Codonopsis Radix decoction increased water intake and the urine volume, but decreased food intake in mice. The treatment significantly reduced angiotensin II receptor (AT1R) transcription and serum aldosterone level in animals, suggested perturbed function of renin-angiotensin system. RNAseq analysis of Codonopsis Radix treated NCI–H295R cells detected suppressed AT1R, SP1, and TEF transcription as well. Thus, Codonopsis Radix may regulate water and electrolytes homeostasis by affecting AT1R expression and aldosterone biosynthesis, possibly through downregulating SP1 and TEF transcription., Codonopsis Radix; RAAS; Aldosterone; AT1R; Polyurine.

Studies on herbal medicines and fermentation products have become increasingly essential with the development of modern industry and technology. In order to verify that fermentation can bring about changes, Paecilomyces cicadae [Paecilomyces cicadae (Miquel.) Samson] was used to ferment Astragali radix [Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. var. mongho-licus (Bge.) Hsiao]. After solid fermentation for Astragali radix produced by Paecilomyces cicadae (SF-AP) was established, an efficient strategy based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap MS) was developed to screen and identify the chemical transformations in SF-AP and Astragali radix according to the acquired diagnostic product ions (DPIs). As a result, 114 compounds including 45 saponins and 69 flavonoids were finally identified and validated. Moreover, two kinds of antioxidative tests corresponding to the scavenging of DPPH· and ABTS·+ were applied to evaluate the antioxidative activity of Astragali radix before and after fermentation. The results demonstrated that some significant chemical transformations such as relative content fluctuations and structural isomerism owing to the occurrence of hydrolysis and conversion reactions and the antioxidative activity of SF-AP was much higher than that of the Astragali radix. This study could provide a new method for the utilization of Astragali radix and constructive guidance for the further research of fermented herbal medicines.

Background Bai-Hu-Tang (BHT), a Chinese herbal decoction used as an antipyretic agent, results from the combination of Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge, Glycyrrhizae, Japonica rice, and Gypsum. In our previous study, we identified nanoaggregates in BHT. However, the present study aimed to analyze and elucidate the mechanism of nanoaggregate formation and to investigate its antipyretic effect. Methods A BHT decoction extract was split into 15 groups, and in each group, the extract was further separated into two solutions: Nano-phase and Decoction. The physicochemical properties of these solutions, such as particle size, salinity, conductivity, and surface tension were investigated, and analyzed the 15 groups of by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and fingerprint chromatography. Furthermore, the antipyretic effect of nanoaggregates was evaluated through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, HE staining, Western Blot, and Real-time PCR. Results In the 15 groups, the salinity and conductivity results showed a promoting and stabilizing effect towards the Nano-phase formation. Analysis of the surface tension indicated good solubilization of Radix Glycyrrhizae. The TEM analysis of the BHT separated extracts revealed that only in the presence of Japonica rice the Nano-phase is formed. Sixteen common peaks were identified in the BHT fingerprint chromatogram, and the main chemical components were Neomangiferin, Mangiferin, Liquiritin, and Ammonium glycyrrhizinate. Furthermore, BHT and nanoaggregates from Bai-Hu-Tang (N-BHT) groups did not differ in the main chemical components. Additionally, the N-BHT group had the same antipyretic effect compared with the BHT group. However, the pathological analysis indicated that treatment with N-BHT could ameliorate the lung damage in the rat. At the same time, N-BHT group inhibited expression of several proteins, specifically IL-1β, TRPV4, NF-κB, and TNF-α, which agreed with the Real-time PCR results. Conclusion We identified the key factors that are involved in the nano-phase formation. Also, by Western blot and Real-time PCR methods, we investigated the N-BHT mechanism of antipyretic action. The discovery of the N-BHT formation would provide a new idea of studying traditional Chinese medicine decoction.

Ophiopogonis Radix, which nourishes the yin, has been used in clinical practice to promote fluid secretion and to moisturize the lungs and skin in traditional Chinese and Japanese medicine. To evaluate this traditional medicinal effect, we investigated Ophiopogonis Radix's antichronic inflammatory effect on senescent cells. Permanent low-grade inflammation has been shown previously to be present in the elderly population, and long-term accumulation of cellular senescence can be responsible for age-related diseases. Consequently, cellular senescence may be a therapeutic target for age-related inflammatory diseases. Senescent normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDFs) were induced in vitro by low-concentration H2O2 treatment. The NHDFs showed overexpression of SA-β-gal, morphological changes, and growth arrest. Additionally, the induced senescent NHDFs were accompanied by increased expression of IL-6, IL-8, and IL-1β genes. The Japanese and Chinese herbal medicine, Ophiopogonis Radix, is prepared from the enlarged part of the root of Ophiopogon japonicus Ker-Gawler. Methanol extracts and main constituents (methylophiopogonanone A, methylophiopogonanone B, ophiopogonanone A, and ophiopogonin B) significantly downregulated the expression of IL-6 and IL-8 and decreased IL-6 production in a strong and concentration-dependent manner by ELISA method. It is suggesting that Ophiopogonis Radix can be effective for chronic inflammation associated with aging. We believe that it is very important to clarify the antiinflammatory activities of crude drugs, such as Ophiopogonis Radix, on senescent cells for prevention and treatment of chronic age-related inflammation.

Angelica radix (Danggui in Chinese) used in China and Japan is derived from two species of Angelica, namely Angelica sinensis and Angelica acutiloba, respectively. The differences in quality between A. sinensis radix (ASR) and A. acutiloba radix (AAR) should be therefore investigated to guide the medicinal and dietary applications of these two species. Secondary metabolites and carbohydrates have been demonstrated to be the two major kinds of bioactive components of Danggui. However, previously, quality comparison between ASR and AAR intensively concerned secondary metabolites but largely overlooked carbohydrates, thus failing to include or take into consideration an important aspect of the holistic quality of Danggui. In this study, untargeted/targeted metabolomics and glycomics were integrated by multiple chromatography-based analytical techniques for qualitative and quantitative characterization of secondary metabolites and carbohydrates in Danggui so as to comprehensively evaluate and compare the quality of ASR and AAR. The results revealed that not only secondary metabolites but also carbohydrates in ASR and AAR were different in type and amount, which should collectively contribute to their quality difference. By providing more comprehensive chemical information, the research results highlighted the need to assess characteristics of both carbohydrates and secondary metabolites for overall quality evaluation and comparison of ASR and AAR. Keywords: Angelica sinensis radix, Angelica acutiloba radix, Metabolomics, Glycomics, Quality evaluation

Herein, a strategy is proposed for the simultaneous determination of primary coumarins in Peucedani Radix (Chinese name: Qianhu). The methodology consists of three consecutive steps: 1) Semi-preparative LC in combination with a home-made automated fraction collection module to fragment the universal metabolome standard into ten fractions (Frs. I–X); 2) LC–accurate MS/MS and quantitative 1H NMR spectroscopy conducted in parallel to acquire the qualitative and quantitative data of each fraction; 3) Robust identification and quantification of components by use of LC coupled to multiple reaction monitoring. In this final step, the most significant fractions (Frs. III–X) were pooled to serve as the pseudo-mixed standard solution. Meticulous online parameter optimization was performed to obtain the optimal parameters, including ion transitions and collision energies. Concerns were particularly paid onto pursuing the parameters being capable of monitoring regio-specific isomers, notably praeruptorin E vs. 3′-isovaleryl-4′-angeloylkhellactone. The quantitative performance of the method was validated according to diverse assays. Eleven primary coumarins (1–11) were unambiguously identified and absolutely quantified, even though no external reference compound was used. Above all, the integrated strategy not only provides a feasible pipeline for the quality assessment of Peucedani Radix, but more importantly, shows the potential for authentic compound-free quantitative evaluation of traditional Chinese medicines., Graphical abstract An authentic compound-free strategy was proposed by offline LC–NMR–MS/MS. The quantitative performance of the method was validated according to diverse assays. Eleven primary coumarins were unambiguously identified and absolutely quantified, even though no external reference compound was used.fx1

Complex radix (−1 + j) allows the arithmetic operations of complex numbers to be done without treating the divide and conquer rules, which offers the significant speed improvement of complex numbers computation circuitry. Design and hardware implementation of complex radix (−1 + j) converter has been introduced in this paper. Extensive simulation results have been incorporated and an application of this converter towards the implementation of discrete Fourier transformation (DFT) processor has been presented. The functionality of the DFT processor have been verified in Xilinx ISE design suite version 14.7 and performance parameters like propagation delay and dynamic switching power consumption have been calculated by Virtuoso platform in Cadence. The proposed DFT processor has been implemented through conversion, multiplication and addition. The performance parameter matrix in terms of delay and power consumption offered a significant improvement over other traditional implementation of DFT processor.

Puerarin is an isoflavone glycoside derived from the extract of Radix Puerarie (Ge-gen) and widely used in traditional Chinese folk medicine. It has been suggested to exert important beneficial health effects, including estrogenic properties. However, it has also been shown to have major side effects. This chapter aims to provide knowledge about the general information about puerarin and its pharmacological and toxic effects on human health.

The Shexiang Baoxin Pill (SBP) comprises seven medicinal materials or extracts thereof, including Moschus, Radix Ginseng, Calculus Bovis, Cortex Cinnamomi, Styrax, Venenum Bufonis, and Borneolum Syntheticum. These medicinal materials are often from different origins, sources, cultural manner, harvest times, and pretreatment processes. Quality control of SBP products is very critical to ensure their efficacy and safety. In this study, chemical fingerprinting and multicomponent determinations were both used to control the quality of SBP and also used in medicinal materials such as Calculus Bovis.

Radix Tetrastigma (RT), the roots of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg, is consumed as both functional food and traditional medicinal herb in China, but there is rare report on its bioactive components. In the present study, the total flavonoid contents (TFC) and antioxidant/antiproliferative activities of RT were evaluated, and the chemical constituents of RT and their metabolites of rat after oral administration were identified and quantified by UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS and UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS. The extract of RT exhibited high TFC and antioxidant/antiproliferative activities in which there were 58 compounds characterized or tentatively identified. Nine original compounds and 12 metabolites were detected in plasma, while 11 original compounds and 13 metabolites were observed in urine. Nine flavonoids were quantified and 5 of them (catechin, kaempferol-3-rutinoside, rutin, isoquercitrin and astragalin) were up to 71.46% of TFC; their metabolites were also found in the plasma and urine, which was suggested to be the major antioxidant/antiproliferative compounds.

Suanzaoren decoction (SZRD) was reported originally in the Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber by Zhang Zhongjing (Han Dynasty) and is one of the most famous traditional prescriptions with effects of hypnosis, sedation, and anticonvulsion, and has been effectively used for the treatment of insomnia in clinics. It consists of five Chinese herbs, i.e., Semen Ziziphi Spinosae, Poria, Rhizoma Chuanxiong, Rhizoma Anemarrhenae, and Radix Glycyrrhizae. Chemical studies on the composition herbs of SZRD have been conducted respectively; unfortunately, the integrated chemical identification of SZRD preparation is still lacking. To investigate the effectiveness of SZRD, the characterization of multiple constituents in the prescription is crucial. It is widely accepted that a vast number of chemical constituents existing in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which are responsible for therapeutic effects, have become challenging and major obstacles to further pharmacological investigation. In recent years, many analytical methods have been successfully applied in the analysis of TCM prescriptions. For example, time-of-flight mass spectrometry, which can provide accurate mass measurements and formulas of nontarget compounds, is able to identify nontarget compounds tentatively. Quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometry can distinguish isomers according to their characteristic fragment ions. The chemical compounds in TCM prescriptions can be tentatively characterized by combining the two techniques. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography with minor particles has greatly improved the resolution, sensitivity, and analytical speed, integrating with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry to form a new high-performance platform for TCM research. In the present study, a robust Waters ultraperformance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry system and a Waters UPLC BEH C 18 column with a 1.7 μm particle size was utilized, and a thorough analysis of the famous SZRD was undertaken.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) expresses its effects through multicomponents and multitargets. The screening and analysis of bioactive components is very important for the drug discovery process and mechanism of TCM. Since most TCMs are orally administered, only the constituents that are successfully assimilated into blood and maintain a considerable concentration level in the target organ have the opportunity to exert curative effects. Serum pharmacochemistry of TCM has been introduced to search for the effective constituents of TCM. It is based on the hypothesis that active compounds could be absorbed into the blood after administration of TCM, and only the absorbed components have the probability of becoming the bioactive constituents. With the help of serum pharmacochemistry, the in vivo bioactive components of Phellodendri amurensis Cortex, Radix Stemonae, Zhi Zhu Wan, and Yin-Chen-Hao-Tang have been observed. With the advantages of short analysis time, high chromatographic resolution, and improved sensitivity, as well as high accuracy of mass values, this approach has been widely accepted and used for the analysis of Chinese herb medicines. This method is usually utilized by coupling with MarkerLynx software, which provides automated peak detection followed by multivariable analysis. A multiple data processing approach (Mdpa) has been developed to handle the acquired data and to search for the discriminating features from biosample sets. The combined high-resolution liquid chromatography mass spectrometry with Mdpa should allow for comprehensive detection and structural interpretation of sample analyses in complex biological matrices.

In the lead optimization phases of drug discovery from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), pharmacokinetics of the absorbed components is key to design in vivo efficacy studies. Pharmacokinetic study on active constituents in TCM preparations is a good way for us to explain and predict a variety of events related to the efficacy of TCM. Medicinal herbs are still an important source of promising lead compounds for human diseases. The root of Stemona tuberosa Lour, also called Bai Bu, first recorded in the herbal Mingyi Bielu , has been a commonly used traditional antitussive medicine for thousands of years. The dried roots of Stemona tuberosa Lour are the main original sources of Stemonae Radix described in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia for antitussive and insecticidal remedy. Stemona alkaloids that were characterized by croomine, stemoninine, neotuberostemonine, or tuberostemonine as main constituents, which exist only in the Stemonaceae family, are major components responsible for antitussive actions. Significant variations in alkaloid composition and content, as well as different degrees of antitussive activities, were found among them. Pharmacokinetic study on active constituents in medicinal herbs is a good way for us to explain and predict a variety of events related to their efficacy. Therefore the establishment of an efficient and accurate method to identify them is indeed requested. Traditionally, this mainly depended on empirical methods as observation of morphological and histological characteristics, while those characteristics are sometimes ambiguous and unobtainable from cut crude drug materials. Up to now, kinetic properties of each chemical constituent have not been taken into account and pharmacokinetics on the multiple absorbed components has not been explored yet and represents an even greater challenge.

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a complex chronic disease and is associated with a spectrum of liver injury ranging from steatosis and steatohepatitis to fibrosis and cirrhosis. Since effective therapies for ALD are still limited, Chinese herbal medicine is thought to be an important and alternative approach. This review focuses on the current scientific evidence of ALD by ten Chinese Materia Medica (中藥 zhōng yào), including Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix (丹參 dān shēn), Notoginseng Radix (三七 sān qī), Lycii Fructus (枸杞子 gǒu qǐ zǐ), Cnidii Fructus (蛇床子 shé chuáng zǐ), Gentianae Radix (龍膽 lóng dǎn), Puerariae Radix (葛根 gé gēn), Puerariae Flos (葛花 gé huā), Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex (厚朴 hòu pò), Platycodonis Radix (桔梗 jié gěng), and Trigonellae Semen (胡蘆巴 hú lú bā). Potential mechanisms of these herbal medicines in ALD are involved in amelioration of enhanced inflammation, reduction of hepatic oxidative stress and lipogenesis, and enhancement of intestinal permeability in alcohol-induced liver injury models in vitro and in vivo. Accordingly, the evidenced therapeutic potential suggests that these herbs are promising candidates for prevention and development of new drugs for ALD in the future.

Aqueous extracts of Ginseng radix have traditionally been used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. In the present study, the effect of Ginseng radix on c-Fos expression in the hippocampus of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats was investigated via immunohistochemistry. Decreased c-Fos expression in the CA regions of the hippocampus was observed in STZ-induced diabetes, and administration of Ginseng radix enhanced the STZ-induced inhibition of c-Fos expression both dose- and duration-dependently. These results suggest that hyperglycemia-induced suppression of Fos expression may trigger the diabetes-induced disruption of hippocampal information processing and that Ginseng radix may alleviate this diabetes-induced disturbance in hippocampal functions.

The Chinese herb Radix Stemonae, or Baibu in Chinese, has been used for treating coughing for over 15 centuries. According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, it comes from the tuberous roots of three species of Stemona . The properties of multiple origins of source plants and existence of multiple antitussive components made the authentication and quality assessment extremely difficult. This review provides an up-to-date coverage of scientific advances in species identification and authentication among the three genuine species and substitutes derived from the genus Asparagus , characterization of the Stemona alkaloids including chemical diversities among the three genuine species and among the major commodity derived from Stemona tuberosa from different locations, identification of the antitussive components and mechanisms of action, clarification of adverse reactions, and, based on all these information, development of quality assessment methods.

Natural products are the most important sources of medicines. And in a sense traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a treasure house for producing abundant active natural products, some of which were developed to TCM-based drugs against various diseases, such as malaria and cancers. In this article, some chemical and pharmacological studies on 10 popular TCMs (Radix et Rhizoma Notoginseng, Radix et Rhizoma Salviae Miltiorrhizae, Ganoderma, Radix et Rhizoma Glycyrrhizae, Herba Epimedii, Flos Carthami, Radix Isatidis, Radix Astragali, Herba Cistanches, Gamboge), which involved in the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, cancers, gynecological diseases, and immunological diseases, were summarized. Those results may provide clear evidence for the efficacy of TCM or lead to new application of the medicines, and some information may cause emerging of new drugs.

Publisher Summary Unsigned binary numbers don’t have the concept of a sign (plus or minus), which means they can be used to represent only positive values. Each “ x ” character represents a single bit; the right-hand bit is known as the Least Significant Bit (LSB) because it represents the smallest value. Two unsigned binary numbers may be added together using a process identical to that used for decimal addition. First, the two least significant bits are added together to give a sum and, possibly, a carry-out to the next stage. This process is repeated for the remaining bits, progressing toward the most significant. In the case of binary (base-2) numbers, the radix complement is known as the twos’ complement and the diminished radix complement is known as the ones’ complement. Once again, the standard way of performing the operation would be to subtract the subtrahend (00011110 2) from the minuend (00111001 2), which may require the use of one or more borrow operations. In standard decimal arithmetic, numbers are typically represented in a form known as sign-magnitude, which means prefixing values with plus or minus signs (by default, numbers without signs are assumed to represent positive values). Signed binary numbers have the concept of a sign, and they can be used to represent both positive and negative values. The end result of using signed binary numbers is to greatly reduce the complexity of operations within a computer. Binary numbers may be multiplied together by means of a shift-and-add technique.

Publisher Summary Digital computers are constructed from logic gates that can represent only two states, they are obliged to make use of the binary number system with its two digits: 0 and 1. This chapter explores the binary arithmetic. Two binary numbers may be added together using an identical process to that used for decimal addition. First, the two least significant bits are added together to give a sum and, possibly, a carry-out to the next stage. This process is repeated for the remaining bits progressing towards the most significant. For each of the remaining bits, there may be a carry-in from the previous stage and a carry-out to the next stage. Computers perform binary subtraction by means of complement techniques. There are two forms of complement associated with every number system, the radix complement and the diminished radix complement, where radix refers to the base of the number system. Under the decimal (base-10) system, the radix complement is also known as the tens complement and the diminished radix complement is known as the nines complement. Binary numbers can by multiplied together by means of a shift-and-add technique known as Booth's Algorithm. Using Booth's algorithm, a partial product is generated for every bit in the multiplier. If the value of the multiplier bit is 0, its corresponding partial product consists only of 0s; if the value of the bit is 1, its corresponding partial product is a copy of the multiplicand.

Publisher Summary This chapter presents the concept of radix distributed arithmetic for the first time. The radix approach can be used to describe the arithmetic functionality of the algebraic mapping networks (AlMa-Net), which is a fine grain soft description of signal processing (SP) systems architecture. The advantage of using the radix approach is that it will result in a wide range of architectures with different trade-off, one for each radix. The conventional distributed arithmetic is seen as an end point of a spectrum when the radix=2. Radix algebraic processors (RaAP) have been developed in the past few years as a fine grain algebraic description of signal processing functions and systems at the sub-word level. The radix methodology has been used extensively in the design of digit serial architectures. The chapter describes radix distributed algorithms and the AlMa-Net description of the corresponding architecture.

Arithmetic operations in microprocessor systems are undertaken using binary numbers' and, therefore, to study microprocessor systems, it is necessary to understand several aspects of digital systems. Microprocessor systems are implemented using hardware elements having two stable states. For example, the binary states may represent voltage levels, current levels or magnetic field directions, and in all cases, one of the stable states is denoted by 1 and the other by 0. The weight of each binary digit (bit) is governed by its position and by the radix. For example, the binary number 1010.01 2 may be written as (1 × 2 3 ) + (0 × 2 2 ) + (1 × 2 1 ) + (0 × 2°) + (0 × 2 -1 ) + (1 × 2 -2 ) = 10.25 10 . There are three important considerations in representing a number: (1) the radix or base, (2) the positional significance of characters, and (3) the need to represent zero. Hexadecimal numbers are a convenient and very useful shorthand representation of their equivalent binary form. This system has a radix of sixteen and uses alphanumeric characters. It uses the numeric characters 0 to 9 and the alphabetic characters A to F. This chapter describes the rules of binary arithmetic, conversion of a decimal number to its radix r equivalent, uses of binary-coded-decimal numbers, important features of logic elements, flip-flops, registers, and counters.

This chapter discusses certain aspects of decimal numeration system and explains how this system and the structural properties of mathematics blend together in the formation of the conventional algorithms for computation. A numeration system is an organized, logical scheme for naming numbers. The system commonly used by the people in most countries is based on the number ten and, hence, is called a decimal system. The system uses 10 numerals called digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Any whole number can be designated by these digits used alone or in conjunction with other digits. This highly efficient system incorporates three powerful concepts; addition, multiplication, and place value. The form of expressing a number as the sum of multiples of powers of 10 is called expanded notation.