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Glucocorticoid hormones (GCs) help vertebrates maintain homeostasis during and following challenging events. Short-term elevations in GC levels are necessary for survival, whereas longer-term changes can lead to reduced reproductive output and immunosuppression. Persistent environmental contaminants (ECs) are widespread globally. Experimental exposure of individuals to ECs is associated with varying GC responses, within, and across, species and contaminants. Individuals exposed to ECs over long durations are expected to have prolonged GC elevations, which likely affect their health. We conducted a meta-analysis to test for a relationship between fish GC levels and experimental exposure to ECs, and to explore potential moderators, including duration of exposure, that could help explain the variation in effect sizes within and between studies. We report almost exclusively on cortisol responses of teleost fish to ECs. Although there was much variation in effect sizes, captive-bred fish exposed to ECs had baseline GC levels 1.5× higher than unexposed fish, and fish exposed to pharmaceuticals (estradiols and stimulants being mainly considered) had baseline GC levels approximately 2.5× higher than unexposed fish. We found that captive-bred and wild-caught fish did not differ in GC levels after exposure to the same classes of ECs - studies on captive bred fish may thus enable inferences about GC responses to ECs for wild species. Furthermore, effect sizes did not differ between baseline and challenge-induced GC measures. In different analyses, duration of exposure was negatively correlated to effect size, suggesting that the GC response may acclimate after chronic exposure to some ECs which could potentially alter the GC response of EC-exposed fish to novel stressors. Future studies should explore the effect of multiple stressors on the fish GC response and perform tests on a broader array of contaminant types and vertebrate classes., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Crown Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

When hosts experience environmental stress, the quantity and quality of resources they provide for parasites may be diminished, and host longevity may be decreased. Under stress, parasites may adopt alternative strategies to avoid fitness reductions. Trematode parasites typically have complex life cycles, involving asexual reproduction in a gastropod first intermediate host. A rare phenomenon, briefly mentioned in the literature, and termed 'precocious encystment' involves the next stage in the parasites' life cycle (metacercarial cyst) forming within the preceding stage (redia), while still inside the snail. In the trematode Parorchis sp. NZ using rocky shore snails exposed to long periods outside water, we hypothesised that this might be an adaptive strategy against desiccation, preventing parasite emergence from the snail. To test this, we first investigated the effect of prolonged desiccation on the survival of two species of high intertidal snails. Secondly, we measured the reproductive output (cercarial production) of the parasite under wet and dry conditions. Finally, we quantified the influence of desiccation stress on the occurrence of precocious encystment. Snail mortality was higher under dry conditions, indicating stress, and it was somewhat exacerbated for infected snails. Parasite reproductive output differed between wet and dry conditions, with parasites of snails kept in dry conditions producing more cercariae when placed in water. Little variation was observed in the occurrence of precocious encystment, although some subtle patterns emerged. Given the stresses associated with living in high intertidal environments, we discuss precocious encystment as a possible stress response in this trematode parasite., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)