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The purpose of this historical review is to summarize the work of Paul of Aegina, especially his contribution to the treatment of neurosurgical disorders and trauma. Paul performed trephinations for head injuries in the tradition of the Egyptian and the Greek schools of medicine. However, he was an innovator in the treatment of several spine injuries, as his choice to perform laminectomies and his description of them as safe and successful is unprecedented in the history of the recorded medicine and surgery. Our search of the literature shows that Paul was the first to include in his practice such a surgical technique, and, in this way, he is an innovator, since Hippocrates described the results of spine surgery as disastrous for the patient. Thus, he may be considered the historic father of spine surgery for his pioneering surgical innovations. This shows clearly that innovation in science and medicine was significantly increased through the rise of Islam and the Arabic conquest of the Middle East. The so-called "Dark Ages" were not so dark after all., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This historical review summarizes the most significant theories regarding the cause of death of King Henry II of France (1519-1559) and the circumstances under which it occurred. Although the historical testimonies are inconclusive and vague, postmortem analysis has shown that the King died of meningoencephalitis, caused by hematoma of a cerebral contusion, with effusion in the cerebral laminae and its surrounding tissue initiated by a periorbital fracture., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This article summarizes the reign, life and death, of Charles VIII of France. Also we intend to investigate current views on his cause of death, contradictions and opinions of his biographers. Poisoning, disease, and injury are the possible causes of his death but, according to the literature, cranial trauma was the most probable cause of death of the King Charles VIII of France., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In this historical review we summarize the work of the Dutch physician, chemist, and anatomist Gerard Blaes (Blasius). A detailed account of his life and work is presented with emphasis on his contribution to anatomy. In particular, special reference is made to his innovative description of the spinal cord and spinal nerves. Blasius's contributions to neuroanatomy are remarkable when taking into account the limited technology of his era. As a true man of his era, he made significant contributions in research and teaching of anatomy, botany, and chemistry. He published a detailed description of the spinal cord with its gray and white matter and the spinal nerve roots, which significantly increased the knowledge of neuroanatomy in his era. He also is considered one of the founders of comparative anatomy through his work in both humans and animals., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of this historic review is to summarize the life, work, and contribution to anatomy of Charles Estienne (also known by the Latin name Carolus Stephanus). Charles Estienne was an early exponent of the science of anatomy in France. Although he remained under the influence of the Galenic tradition of medicine, anatomy, and surgery throughout his distinguished career, he had a significant influence on the scientific revolution and anatomy reformation of the 16th century. Nevertheless, he cannot be placed at the same level of contribution as Vesalius, because of his lack of discipline in his work, hesitation to diverge totally from traditional beliefs, and his hesitation for a total criticism of the Galenic tradition., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)