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In Mediterranean drylands, extensive areas have been restored by reforestation over the past decades to improve diversity, soil fertility, and tree natural regeneration, contributing to halting desertification and land degradation. However, evaluating reforestation success usually relies on tree survival, while holistic and long-term evaluations of reforestation success based on ecosystem diversity, structure and functioning are scarce. In this work, we provide the first assessment that combines the evaluation of planted trees and indicators of ecosystem diversity, structure, and functioning in established reforestations with three native Mediterranean species along a climatic gradient. We sampled 43 20-year-old stands with umbrella pine, holm oak and cork oak in Portugal, and tested the effects of tree species composition, stand management (i.e., differences in tree density and shrub cover), and edaphoclimatic conditions, on the size of planted trees, species diversity, structural complexity and indicators of ecosystem functioning related to productivity, soil nutrients and tree natural regeneration. Our results show that, after 20 years of reforestation, stand management was an essential driver of plant diversity and ecosystem functioning. Higher tree density, particularly of oaks, and higher shrub cover improved plant diversity, ecosystem productivity, and oak regeneration. The latter was also improved by structural complexity. Tree composition effects highlighted the importance of pine management to avoid competition. Since we evaluated these reforestations along a climatic gradient, we also conclude that climate influenced pine and holm oak size, ecosystem productivity, and soil C/N. Our research, by being based on assessing the long-term reforestation success in a more holistic way, highlighted the importance of stand management for improving ecosystem diversity and functioning in these restored systems. Practices such as increasing tree density up to ~800 trees/ha and allowing a shrub cover of ca. 30 %, may improve the ecological condition of future and currently reforested areas across the Mediterranean region., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Aridity is a critical driver of the diversity and composition of plant communities. However, how aridity influences the phylogenetic structure of functional groups (i.e. annual and perennial species) is far less understood than its effects on species richness. As perennials have to endure stressful conditions during the summer drought, as opposed to annuals that avoid it, they may be subjected to stronger environmental filtering. In contrast, annuals may be more susceptible to interannual climatic variability. Here we studied the phylogenetic structure of the annual and perennial components of understorey plant communities, along a regional aridity gradient in Mediterranean drylands. Specifically, we asked: (1) How do species richness (S) and phylogenetic structure (PS) of annuals and perennials in plant communities respond to aridity? (2) What is the contribution of other climatic and topo-edaphic variables in predicting S and PS for both components? (3) How does the taxonomic and phylogenetic turnover of annuals and perennials vary with spatial and environmental distances? We assessed annuals' and perennials' species richness, the phylogenetic structure at deep and shallow phylogenetic levels, and taxonomic and phylogenetic turnover along spatial and environmental distances. We found no relationship between annuals' richness and aridity, whereas perennials' richness showed a unimodal pattern. The phylogenetic structure of annuals and perennials showed contrasting responses to aridity and negatively correlated with topo-edaphic variables. We found phylogenetic clustering at intermediate-to-higher aridity levels for annuals, and at lower aridity levels for perennials. Both taxonomic and phylogenetic turnover in annuals and perennials correlated with the environmental distance rather than with spatial distance between communities, suggesting adaptation to local factors. Overall, our results show a decoupling in the response of the phylogenetic structure of annual and perennial components of plant communities to aridity in Mediterranean drylands. Our findings have significant implications for land management strategies under climate change., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors have no competing interest to declare., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Shrub encroachment influences several ecosystem services in drylands worldwide. Yet, commonly used strategies to reduce encroachment show a low medium-term success, calling for a better understanding of its causes. Previous works identified multiple drivers responsible for this phenomenon, including anthropogenic and environmental causes. However, the relative effect of climate, topography and edaphic factors on shrub encroachment is not fully understood nor has been properly quantified in Mediterranean Basin drylands. Also, understanding how these drivers lead to changes in plant communities' functional traits associated to shrub encroachment is crucial, considering traits influence ecosystem processes and associated ecosystem services. Here, we studied the understory of a Mediterranean dryland ecosystem composed of savanna-like Holm-oak woodlands, along a regional climatic gradient. We specifically assessed (i) how climatic, topographic and edaphic factors influence understory relative shrub cover (RSC) and (ii) their direct and indirect effects (via RSC) on plant functional traits. We studied the mean and diversity of 12 functional traits related to plant regeneration, establishment, and dispersal, at the community-level. We found that, under similar low-intensity land use, topographic and edaphic factors, namely slope variations and soil C:N ratio, were the most important predictors of shrub encroachment, determining communities' functional characteristics. Climate, namely summer precipitation, had a much lesser influence. Our model explained 52% of the variation in relative shrub cover. Climate had a stronger effect on a set of functional traits weakly involved in shrub encroachment, related to flowering and dispersal strategies. We show that shrub encroachment is largely predicted by topo-edaphic factors in Mediterranean drylands subject to conventional low-intensity land use. Hence, management strategies to reduce encroachment need to take these drivers into account for efficient forecasting and higher cost-effectiveness. Our results suggest that climate change might not greatly impact shrub encroachment in the Mediterranean Basin, but may affect functional structure and reduce functional diversity of plant communities, thus affecting ecosystem functioning., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Climate change and increasing socio-economic pressure is placing many ecosystems of high ecological and economic value at risk. This is particularly urgent in dryland ecosystems, such as the montado, a multifunctional savannah-like system heavily modeled by grazing. There is still an ongoing debate about the trade-offs between livestock grazing and the potential for ecosystem regeneration. While it is consensual that overgrazing hinders the development of the shrubs and trees in this system, the effects of undergrazing or grazing exclusion are unclear. This study provides the unique opportunity to study the impact of grazing on compositional and structural biodiversity by examining the ecological chronosequence in a long-term ecological research site, located in Portugal, where grazing exclusion was controlled for over 15years. As the threat of intensification persists, even in areas where climate shifts are evident, there is a critical need to understand if and how the montado might recover by removing grazing pressure. We evaluate succession on structural and compositional diversity after grazing pressure is removed from the landscape at 5, 10, and 15years post-cattle exclusion and contrast it with currently grazed plots. A LiDAR-derived structural diversity index (LHDI), a surrogate of ecosystem structure and function first developed for the pine-grassland woodland systems, is used to quantify the impact of grazing exclusion on structure and natural regeneration. The distribution of the vegetation, particularly those of the herbaceous and shrub strata (>10≤150cm), presents statistically significant changes. The LHDI closely mimics the compositional biodiversity of the shrubs, with an increase in diversity with increased years without grazing. Under present climate conditions, both shrub regeneration and the establishment of tree saplings were strongly promoted by grazing exclusion, which has important management implications for the long-term sustainability of montado systems., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)