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With a half-life of 10.7 years, the noble gas radioisotope 85Kr is perfectly suited as a tracer to date ice and water that formed during the past half century. Furthermore, due to its inhomogeneous input into the atmosphere, it is a useful tool to investigate atmospheric circulation and back-trajectory analysis. The data presented here represent a comprehensive time series of atmospheric 85Kr activity concentrations in ground level air that can be used to model northern and southern hemispheric input functions, which is essential to apply 85Kr as a dating tracer. The collection comprises 11 datasets from 4 monitoring stations in the northern and 7 monitoring stations in the southern hemisphere, respectively. In total, it contains about 8000 measurements performed over the past 60 years, making it the largest published 85Kr record.

This work contains dataset of measured activity concentrations of 40K, 238U, 232Th and gamma doses at 1 m above the ground level over Beryllium and Gold mining fields in Ifelodun and Moro respectively, Kwara State, North-central Nigeria. A well calibrated Super-Spec (RS-125) gamma spectrometer was used to carry out these measurements. Measurements were carried out manually in 72 randomly selected sample points. Statistical analyses of the data were explored to infer potential statistical relationships. The obtained dataset is presented for further assessment that can offer insights into the safety state of Ifelodu, Moro and their environs from radiation protection point of view. The data in this study could serve as a substantial baseline radiological data of the region for future monitoring and epidemiology researches.

This chapter presents the development and use of the most reliable and widely used instrument for cosmic ray measurements from the ground, the neutron monitor, and the global database collecting data from the neutron monitors worldwide, the international Neutron Monitor Database (NMDB). NMDB collects data from about 50 stations worldwide, more than half of which in real-time. The construction and principle of operation of the neutron monitor are presented in the beginning, together with the nature of the particles observed at ground level relevant to space weather applications. This naturally introduces the need for a global network of neutron monitors at different geomagnetic locations. The NMDB infrastructure is reviewed and a couple of applications related to space weather are presented.

Study design retrospective. Objectives To investigate the epidemiology of elderly (age ≥65 years) patients who presented to the emergency department (ED) in the United States with thoracolumbar (TL) fractures after ground level falls. Methods Using the National Emergency Department Sample database, we queried all ED visits in the United States from 2009 through 2012 of elderly patients who presented after ground level falls. We identified patients who sustained TL fractures with and without neurological injury. Resulting data was used to analyze the fracture prevalence, ED and patient characteristics, associated injuries, treatment patterns, inpatient mortality, and hospital charges. Results Of the 6,654,526 ED visits in the elderly for ground level falls, 254,486 (3.8%) were associated with a diagnosis of TL fracture. 39% patients had multiple injuries, and upper extremity fractures were the most common associated injuries. Overall, 55.6% were admitted to the hospital. Of those, 77.7% were treated non-operatively, 20.4% were treated with cement augmentation alone, 1.5% were treated with spinal fusion surgery, and 0.4% were treated with spinal decompression alone. The overall rate of inpatient mortality was 2.14%. Conclusions This investigation evaluated the epidemiology of elderly patients who presented to the ED in the United States with TL fractures after ground level falls. The study demonstrated a rather high incidence of TL fractures in this patient cohort. As a result, it is important for ED physicians and orthopaedic surgeons to be highly suspicious of TL fractures in elderly patients who sustain low energy trauma. With the continued aging of the population and rising health care costs, future effort ought to focus on fall prevention and increased surveillance for TL injuries in the elderly.

Fine particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters equal to or less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5) is a major component of air pollutants. The adverse effects of PM2.5 on public health have been well recognized. Numerous methods have been developed for ground-level PM2.5 concentration mapping by exploiting the advancements of machine learning and observational technologies. The currently available gridded long-term PM2.5 concentration datasets are typically at a spatial resolution of 1 km × 1 km (or 0.01° × 0.01°) and a temporal granularity of a year, which is insufficient for public health applications that require higher spatiotemporal resolutions. In this study, we propose a statistical approach to integrate random forests, a commonly used machine learning algorithm, and regression kriging, a recognized geostatistical method, for high-resolution mapping of ground-level PM2.5 concentrations. This approach jointly considers the heterogeneous geospatial variables that are closely related to the distribution of PM2.5, including meteorological factors, socioeconomic development activities, and topographic information. The integration of the machine learning and traditional geostatistical methods enables the effective modeling of the nonlinear relationships between the PM2.5 concentration and the predictor variables (via random forests) while accounting for the complex spatiotemporal effects of the variables (via kriging). Using this integrative approach, we produce a time-series (January 2014 to December 2014) monthly PM2.5 concentration dataset at a spatial resolution of 500 m for the contiguous United States. The advantages of the proposed approach are discussed and highlighted with a performance comparison with a commonly used land use regression method in ground-level PM2.5 concentration mapping.

The rapid development of modern metropolises has led to a shortage of surface space and in response engineers have pursued alternatives below ground level. Shafts are commonly used to provide temporary access to the subsurface for tunnelling and, as permanent works,are utilised forlifts or ventilation purposes. The construction sequence of axisymmetric shafts makes them a dramatically simple solution. In addition, circular shafts are inherently stiffer than other plan geometries. Those, perhaps, are reasons why circular shafts are preferred in situations of restricted space or unfavourable ground conditions. However, due to the lack of case histories reporting ground movements induced by shaft construction, no empirical prediction method for subsurface soil displacements exists.The work presented here seeks to provide clearer insights into surface and subsurface soil displacements induced by circular shaft construction by meansof analysis on measurements obtained from centrifuge tests and available field data. Novel empirical equations and proceduresare suggested for practical use.

With developing concerns of climate change, population growth and rapid urbanization, there is growing need to optimize Food-Energy-Water (FEW) sectors. Subsequently, FEW nexus thinking has become a prerequisite for development planning today, as the three sectors are intricately linked to each other. This study identifies the key barriers to operationalizing FEW nexus at ground level and underlines the need for urban-rural shared perspectives in resource management. Since, urban and rural systems depend on shared stock of natural resources, the study theorizes that building integrated decision making platforms at regional level will significantly enhance their collective resilience to emerging socio-environmental challenges.

Commercial aircrafts made the world smaller today through global networking. It is possible owing to the safe, reliable, and advanced material selection for modern aircraft and its components by the manufacturer. The materials used in the manufacturing of aircraft structure need to serve satisfactorily against extremes of temperature ranging from high altitude, low temperature to ambient temperature at ground level and extreme of forces as well as material should require high strength to weight and stiffness to weight ratio. Therefore, the aim of this study is to present the evaluation strategy in material selection for aviation industry from the beginning of the era.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the uncertainty of the DNI satellite-derived data from HelioClim-3 against those measured at ground level by calculating the classical statistical performance indicators for different time resolutions (hourly, daily and monthly). Correlations between the errors and the Aerosol optical depth (AOD) data measured by an AERONET sun photometer station at the University of Oujda were performed. Results show that the DNI data derived from Helioclim-3 can be considered as acceptable for satellite data with an RMSE of 19.7 % and a bias of 7.9 % for the hourly data. HelioClim-3 systematically over-estimates the daily DNI sums for the investigated site. The correlation to AOD at 550 nm can only be one of the reasons for the deviation. Corrections or site adaptation could help to increase the accuracy of the data base for that pixel.

This chapter provides an overview of the present (2016) state of the art in ground-level remote sensing of the wind speed and boundary-layer height by use of lasers. The chapter covers a broad range of aspects of coherent wind-lidar measurements—from the basic measuring principles and calibration, to a discussion on the use of wind-lidar measurements for studies of the wind climate. A number of methods for the determination of atmospheric turbulence and wind gusts from wind-lidar measurements as well as ways to estimate the atmospheric boundary-layer height by use of lidar observations are presented. Finally the so-called wind-scanner system is described.

Publisher Summary This chapter summarizes that the availability of local water supplies generally determines the source of supply for a firewater pump due to economics and reliability. Sources of water supplies are generally classified into natural sources and manmade sources. Water supplies to fire protection that can be provided through strictly gravity systems are preferred over systems that rely on pumps because of reliance on mechanical systems is subject to failure. The most important factor of the open sea, ocean, rivers, channels, ponds, and lakes is that they can be considered an unlimited source of water provided the pumping system is adequate. Climatic and seasonal changes must be taken into account for the reliability of the supply. Underground sources of water can contain many different types of contaminants which may cause corrosion and might produce harmful or dangerous conditions. Water storage tanks can either be elevated, at ground level, or buried. Pressure tanks are used for firewater supplies in limited private fire protection services or in ships. This chapter also reviews on hourly variance, variance in local uses, future growth, municipal supply changes, and true static pressure. The quality of water used for firewater service should be examined to determine its potential for detrimental effects to firewater pumping system. Water with a wetting agent, which is purely hydrocarbon, has more penetrating capability and facilitates the formation of small drops necessary for rapid heat absorption. Methods to control marine growth are screens, construction of materials, protective coatings, electrical fields, and biocide injection.

Trench excavations are mostly done by using a string line. The procedure is easily explained with an example. The contractor will establish a string line, probably 3 ft above the surveyor's hub as shown below. The elevation of the string line would be 68.0. A machine operator will excavate 13 ft measured from the string line (68 − 55 = 13). The depth to the bottom of the trench measured from ground level would vary depending upon the ground elevation.

Corona of HVDC overhead-lines is important in the planning of transmission corridors. Effects that need to be considered include corona losses (CL), audible-noise (AN), radio-interference (RI) and ground level ion currents. Water on conductor surfaces influences these quantities. It was previously shown that certain conductor surfaces lead to considerable reductions in wet weather CL. This publication studies the causes of these differences using optical methods. A key finding is that the size of water drops is decisive for differences in CL. Furthermore, different discharge mechanisms are shown to be the reason for differences in AN during and after rain showers.

This paper focuses on the assessment of atmospheric aerosol optical properties at the surface and in atmospheric column during both desert dust and dust-free conditions over Granada, South-eastern Iberian Peninsula. Indeed, the spectral dependence of aerosol absorption and scattering properties are analyzed in detail. The analyzed period ranges from June 2008 to December 2010. On dusty days, the mean scattering Angström exponent value obtained in the atmospheric column (SAEcol) (0.5±0.3) was lower than the observed at the surface level (SAEis) (1.3±0.6), indicating higher contribution of coarse particles at high atmospheric level than at ground level during the analyzed dust events. In addition, it is noticed that the absorption Angström exponent in the atmospheric column (AAEcol) with mean value of 1.5±0.2 and at the surface (AAEis) with mean value of 1.3±0.2 obtained during dusty situations are indicative of mixture of desert dust and black carbon particles as dominant absorbers both in the atmospheric column and at the surface during dust intrusions over Granada. On the other hand, a non-parametric test (Kolmogorov-Smirnov) revealed that no significant statistical difference was found for AAEis between desert dust and free-dust conditions. This result may be due to the important contribution of urban absorbing aerosol (e.g. Black carbon) at ground level in the study location. Therefore, these parameters (AAEcol and AAEis) are not very useful to detect desert dust events without the use of other information (e.g., aerosol size) over urban area like Granada.A dust extreme event was analyzed in order to retrieve optical parameters during situation dominated by desert dust. The values of SAEcol and SAEis obtained during this extreme event were in agreement with the values showed above for the period 2008-2010, although the differences between dust-free and dust conditions are more noticeable in this special event Aerosol scattering and absorption Angström exponent as indicators of dust and dust-free days over Granada (Spain)., This work was supported by the Andalusia Regional Government through projects P12-RNM-2409 and P10-RNM-6299, by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology through projects CGL2010-18782, CSD2007-00067, CGL2011-29921-C02-01 and CGL2011-13580-E/CLI., Manuel Antón thanks the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación and Fondo Social Europeo for the award of a postdoctoral grant (Ramón y Cajal)., CIMEL Calibration was performed at the AERONET-EUROPE calibration center, supported by ACTRIS (European Union Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 262254.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses 22 documented outbreaks of foodborne illness associated with berries. There may be several reasons why berries have been involved in a myriad of outbreaks, such as contamination by farm and packing-plant workers, use of unsafe agricultural practices, and global sourcing to provide yearlong availability. In general, berry crops are best watered using trickle irrigation, as this allows the grower to apply water at the critical period of fruit development and avoids wetting the fruit, which could foster the development of disease and rot. Prevention of produce contamination is a preferred practice, compared to decontamination especially with products such as berries, for which postharvest intervention strategies are limited, provide incomplete protection, or compromise quality attributes. Since the increase in foodborne illness outbreaks associated with produce, additional measures have been taken to determine and implement good practices aimed at reducing the incidence of contamination on the farm and in handling. Specific guidance documents have been written to expand and customize insight for certain types of produce including leafy greens, tomatoes, and fresh-cut produce. However, given the diversity of growing methods for berries from ground level to bush to vine, specific guidelines that suit all berry products would be particularly challenging to devise.

This brief article elaborates on some clearly unlikely predictions made some four decades ago by R. Dobry within the context of his doctoral dissertation, which concerns the resonant frequencies of soil strata whose stiffness starts at zero at ground level and then increases continuously as some power of the depth. Although the problem was eventually traced to subtle changes in the boundary conditions which take place when the soil parameter exceeds a threshold value, and the discrepancy was ultimately fully resolved, Dobry initially countered to the technical objections of the writer by presenting an extremely elegant counter-proof based on dimensional analysis whose strength emanated from the fact that it was free from the issue of the boundary conditions, and thus forced the writer to seek alternative explanations for the contradictory results. It is this fruitful exchange of ideas which provides the motivation for this brief technical note expounding on an apparent paradox, which may prove useful to the soil dynamics community for its potential didactical value, not to mention as an outright tool.

Springs are often used to model the soil–pile interaction. These springs are known as Winkler springs. The skin friction of a pile can be represented using a series of springs. Lateral loads are exerted on piles due to wind, soil, and water. In such cases, lateral pile capacity needs to be designed to accommodate the loading. The deformation of piles due to lateral loading is normally limited to the upper part of the pile. Lateral pile deflection, 8 to 10 diameters below the ground level, is negligible in most cases. Piles that can carry heavy vertical loads may be very weak under lateral loads. The spring constant or the coefficient of subgrade reaction varies with the depth. In most cases, the coefficient of subgrade reaction increases with depth.

Concentration fluctuations in a dispersing plume are important for determining the hazardous effects of the release. For example, toxicity is typically non-linear with exposure concentration and therefore highly sensitive to the peak concentration levels. Modelling the relevant fluctuation statistics is difficult because most exposures of interest occur within 2 m of ground level where the high wind shear levels attenuate and distort the concentration fluctuations. In this paper we propose a shear correction model that leverages the currently available dispersion models.

When we take a top-down approach to understanding issues surrounding ROV implementation, we can employ the metaphor either literally or as a form of abstraction hierarchy (Rasmussen, 1986). Literally, the military's necessity for moment-to-moment information mandates a suite of context-specific technological capabilities for sensor and effector systems. This suite includes but is not limited to systems in outer space (such as geo-synchronized orbiting platforms), high altitude atmospheric systems (such as Global Hawk) and other craft which operate less than hundreds of feet from earth down to almost ground level itself.

A number of papers on various aspects of SCC can be found in the literature but most of them are based on the laboratory investigations using optimized conditions, complex terminologies and procedures. The results so obtained are not easy to comprehend and are unsuitable for engineers hying to make use of this wonderful technology of the decade. A laboratory SCC mix generally gives a different response when used at a ready-mixed concrete plant. This is due mainly to the differences in mixing regimes, procedures, climatic conditions and aggregate surface moisture estimation. The information provided in this paper is based on the experience gained from laboratory and plant mixes with subsequent field placements 150 meters below the ground level, in a local tunnel of a research and teaching mine, by means of pumping. The total horizontal pumping distance (above and below ground level) was also 150 meters. 50 liter laboratory mixes of combination type of SCC using natural aggregates with different gradings, cement types as well as mineral and chemical admixtures were made and tested followed by the tests on 1.5 or 3.0 m 3 ready-mix plant batches with almost similar mixing regimes. A typical field batch consisted of 8 m 3 of SCC. This paper addresses areas such as mix design, aggregate grading, system’s water demand, flow and strength of SCC formulations. The results suggest that a thorough understanding of all relevant aspects is essential for successful SCC production. A simple procedure to determine the water demand of a typical SCC formulation is also suggested and is contained in this paper.

This chapter focuses on underground location of nuclear power plants. Plants can be built at ground level with external surfaces of the vital parts. These vital parts are covered with soil or special material. Plants can also be located in deep excavation. The location of the turbine–generator system at depth is close to the reactor cavern. Various feasibility studies have been made in recent times in Sweden, Germany, and Switzerland. The consequences of possible severe accidents can provide better mitigation. The underground location has been the most effective solution, even against extreme attacks. A sub-surface location can be implemented in a unique way to resist any conventional weapon and nuclear bombs. The increase in cost is also significant and many evaluations have been made. The increase in cost is also because of the increase in the construction time. High cost and long construction times can be weighed against the potential benefit objective of improving the resistance against severe accidents.

Monitoring for atmospheric CO 2 concentrations may be an integral part of any subsurface storage project. Several CO 2 measurement methods may be used to meet the monitoring objectives of assuring there are no large leaks at the surface that might pose a health risk and verifying that the injected CO 2 remains trapped below the Earth's surface. Options include remote sensing from satellites or aircraft, open path instruments that can sample over significant distances, and a network of conventional fixed-point detectors. NASA indicates satellite surveys might be useful for a “global” view of CO 2 . Aircraft surveys may be a fast means to collect data near ground level, but this is only practical in an infrequent basis. Instruments located near ground level that are based on open path sampling may offer the most efficient means to monitor long term over a large surface area. They could have the capability to detect increases of just a few percent of CO 2 above normal background, over a sample path of tens of meters, and continuously with unattended operation. Many different commercial fixed-point units based on infrared (IR) spectroscopy are available. These detectors may be better suited to monitor sensitive, high-risk points of leakage rather than be deployed in a network to monitor large surface areas.

Publisher Summary Studies on radon and its decay products in the atmosphere are useful for determining the radiological risk to the general public. Concentrations of 222 Rn and its decay products in ground level air are dependent on its exhalation rate and atmospheric diffusion depending on meteorological parameters. In the present investigation, extensive studies on 222 Rn exhalation rate, 222 Rn and its decay product concentrations in air at ambient temperature and humidity were carried out simultaneously at each sampling location in coastal Karnataka and Kaiga. Correlations of 226 Ra in soil, 222 Rn exhalation rate, equilibrium factors, and annual effective dose to the general public were estimated. The estimated dose to the general public due to inhalation of outdoor 222 Rn and its decay products using the equilibrium factor suggested by UNSCEAR yielded higher values than the dose calculated from the equilibrium factors obtained here. This suggests the need and importance of measurement of individual 222 Rn concentrations and its decay products, and of establishing the equilibrium factor individually for a larger number of areas so that a more realistic equilibrium factor can be derived for global use.

Publisher Summary Environmental gamma radiation was measured using a Ge semiconductor detector over a period of about 1 year in Tokyo. Vertical distributions of 222 Rn in air were estimated qualitatively using the ratios of the count rates of 1120 and 1765 keV gamma radiations to that of 609 keV emitted from 214 Bi. Diurnal and seasonal variations of the ratios were investigated. In the case of diurnal variations, the ratios at the break of dawn were small. This indicates that the difference in 222 Rn concentration in air in the vertical direction is relatively large at the break of dawn. As for seasonal variations, the ratios in summer were larger than those in winter. This indicates that the difference in 222 Rn concentration in air in the vertical direction is relatively small in summer. The vertical distributions of 222 Rn in air could be estimated qualitatively using gamma radiation measured with a Ge semiconductor detector at the ground level. Quantitative estimation could be accomplished in the further study.

The activity concentrations in air of 7 Be and 210 Pb have been investigated at Malaga (South-East Spain) from 1992 to 1999. In this period, the measurements yielded an average 7 Be activity concentrations at ground level of 4.16 • 10 -3 Bq m -3 and an average of 0.54 •10 -3 Bq m -3 for 210 Pb. The variation of the data with time was studied by time series analysis and seasonal patterns were identified. Activity concentrations of 7 Be and 210 Pb were greatly affected by the meteorological conditions showing pronounced differences between seasons. Maximum activity concentrations in air were systematically observed in spring-summer of each year for 7 Be and in summer for 210 Pb. Minimum activity concentrations were observed in autumn for 7 Be and in autumn-winter for 210 Pb. In the long term, annual variations of approximately a factor of 1.7 were observed in 7 Be activity concentrations and a factor of 1.8 for 210 Pb. The study reveals that much of the variability in the concentration activities is explained by temperature, rainfall, relative humidity and wind speed.

Publisher Summary Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen, naturally present as a colorless gas with a distinctive odor. It is produced in the upper atmosphere by the action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen molecules and at ground level as a by-product of photochemical reactions involving oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrocarbons. Ozone has been proved to be an effective antimicrobial for a number of applications. It is not, however, a cure-all and there are significant health and safety implications and detrimental effects to food and the environment. It is also difficult to advise as to the exact concentration of ozone, either gaseous or aqueous, needed for a certain application owing to many factors such as the amount of organic material present, the desired effect, and the operating conditions of the system. It does, however, have the potential to be used as a terminal sanitizer for food contact equipment and the environment, provided that personnel can be excluded during its application and degradation. Levels of ozone of 2 ppm have been shown to be effective against a range of microorganisms in the laboratory and in industry. Ozonated water can also be used for decontamination of surfaces and equipment and has the potential for use in cleaning-in-place systems. It also has fewer health and safety considerations than the use of ozone gas. A thorough investigation must, however, precede any use of ozone or ozonated water to ensure product, equipment, and personnel safety.

Publisher Summary Initially, sewers start as small diameter pipes, a little below ground level, and eventually are collected through interceptors of increasing size to feed the treatment works. These interceptors are sometimes of sufficient size or depth and the sewers have to be constructed using tunneling techniques. In addition, surface topography may dictate a tunneled solution. There has been a trend over recent years to construct tunnels for being used as storage tunnels to hold surface water during periods of storm. The execution of tunneling contracts is becoming more mechanized with more sophisticated modi operandi. However, while the techniques of making peaceful holes in the ground grew originally from military science they have more latterly evolved due to differing ground conditions and the available technology. These methods and techniques adopted within civil engineering vary considerably depending on the geological and topographical aspects and they can be divided into two broad classifications: rock tunneling and soft ground tunneling.

The Edwards–Anderson site order parameter, q, or its generalizations have been considered to study the partial spin-glass behavior of ±J Ising lattices. These parameters vanish if all 2W ground states are taken into account, so an ergodic separation must be done in order to emulate nature. Here, we follow a recently proposed criterion to do ergodic separation in spin glasses. The method relies upon: (i) the complete knowledge of the physical properties of the ground level and (ii) a new algorithm to calculate the diluted lattice that remains after removing all bonds that frustrate in any of the ground states. With this new methodology, reproducible values of the order parameters have been obtained. Size effects and tendency towards the thermodynamic limit are established.

This chapter discusses the accountability for quality in the real world. This chapter reviews the dramatic changes in how the behavioral healthcare field is structured, from cottage industry to industrialization and consolidation. It reviews many approaches to accountability for quality, including quality assurance and quality improvement. Many methods have also been reviewed, including performance and outcome measurement, medical cost-offset studies, and practice guidelines. The primary method focused upon was performance measurement because of its accountability function for large organizations and entire systems of care. Advances in outcome and performance measurement and innovative approaches to quality improvement have slowed somewhat in behavioral healthcare. Commodity pricing policies and industry consolidation have been discouraging, and cause the industry to catch its breath and wonder about strategy and direction. During such times, the will required to continue expensive outcome and performance measurement and other quality- focused activities is substantial. The expense can seem unsupportable. Nevertheless, it is especially during such a time that the efforts to demonstrate convincingly that the services are not commodities must be continued. It can be differentiated by various dimensions of quality that are value-priced accordingly and monitored through data to ensure that value is maintained.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes the comparison of different assessment methods of global solar irradiations using satellitary data. The study of the performances and of the accuracy level of a solar irradiation assessment method is carried out by making comparisons between the model estimated values and the measured values at the ground level. This study includes essentially two stages—the computation of certain statistical factors such as the correlation coefficient, the root mean square error, the mean relative error, etc, and the analysis of the recorded errors between measurement and estimation. The classification of varied assessment methodologies of solar irradiation is executed by the comparison of both the accuracy level of the results and the input parameters, and the computation time of the models. The diversity of the structure of different methodologies makes this comparison difficult. However, certain authors are working on this. In this chapter, the performances of GISTEL method are compared to those of five other methods cited in the literature. This preliminary comparison is not definitive. Nevertheless, it shows that the GISTEL method inspite of its simplicity is as efficient as other satellitary method.

The topological phase is acquired in logical differentiation and can be quantified as a multiple of the fermionic half-twists, which determines the (topo)logical potential. The topological potential, multiplied by the factor “n,” gives the Bohr quantum energy that opens up a possibility of formulating the quantum mechanics of the atom as a topological theory. Atomic levels are topological rotors, which form nonorientable atomic orbits, where the ground level n = 0 is a basic Mobius level without a knot. Logical rotors are self-measuring systems. Because a measurement is always defined with respect to a system of reference, the observables, be they physical or logical are always, relative observables. In the laboratory, one never measures the absolute position of a particle, but the distance between the particle and some reference object. The reference system, which can be a macroscopic object or simply another heavier particle, is always there, even if one does not refer to it explicitly.

Publisher Summary Air pressure, frequently referred to as atmospheric pressure, is the force exerted on a surface of an area caused by the Earth's gravitational attraction on the air vertically above that area. Air pressure varies with altitude and location. For instance, at the equator, where the tradewinds of both hemispheres converge, there is a low pressure zone characterized by high humidity. It is not widely appreciated that the location of equipment, especially with respect to its altitude above sea level, can affect the working of that equipment. But it is not just the height above sea level that has the most effect. Even air pressure variations at ground level have to be considered. In the railway environment, when a train enters a tunnel, it forces a pressure wave ahead of it, which travels at the velocity of sound to the opposite end of the tunnel where it is reflected, and it then returns to meet the train at some point. This can become a particular problem, because the increasing intermittent pressure variations at the front of the train can sometimes produce a pressure difference that is more than double the value of the first pressure rise. High-air pressure occurring in natural depressions and mines can have a mechanical effect on sealed containers and should always be borne in mind when designing equipment. Most non-heat dissipating components that incorporate elastomeric seals experience hardening of the seals and contraction of materials as they become colder and may suffer failure of the seals as the surrounding air-pressure decreases.

This paper surveys the current status of the ongoing studies on saltfall biomonitoring by means of epiphytic lichens of the Ramalina and Usnea genera, in the south-western part of Portugal. Other than addressing the calibration of transplants against physical samplers, the paper deals with the ionic contents of natives as regionalised variables in order to produce a geostatistics-derived mapping of chloride and sodium levels all across the study area. After an upgrading, which is already under way, the approach described herein may form the basis of an integrated system for assessing the saline risk at any given point.

The effect of the atmosphere on the passage of radio photons is significant, but even more important is the influence of solid objects, especially the Earth, which is the largest solid object. This leads to reflection, shadowing, and diffraction effects which greatly complicate the prediction of received radio signals. This chapter begins with the simplest case of communication over the Earth's surface and observes its influence under reflection. From VHF to microwave, most building materials are partial reflectors of radio quanta and metals are almost wholly so. Materials such as glass, which are poor reflectors, are often backed up in glass-clad buildings with other materials, such as metal and building blocks that reflect better. Thus, all normal buildings and almost all road vehicles can be treated as good reflectors of radio energy in these bands. The surface of the Earth itself reflects at all frequencies down to the lowest because of its large size.

Work is presented on the initial development of a detailed treatment of NH 3 dry deposition in an atmospheric transport model for Great Britain. There is considerable local variability in agricultural emissions of NH 3 . Because of the ground level nature of the emissions and variable deposition velocities (V d ) to different land surfaces, a model is required that incorporates the land-use dependence of NH 3 dry deposition, together with a detailed (multi-layer) treatment of atmospheric diffusion and transport. The initial results of applying a variable V d are presented together with a budget of net NH 3 dry deposition over the country. Differences in concentration due to the use of variable V d , compared with a spatially uniform value, are indicated.

Forty measurements are reported in similar rooms in two high-rise buildings. The geometrical means for the concentration of radon daughters including and excluding the basement results, respectively, were 0.90 and 1.00 mWL, which is less than the quoted mean 2.0 mWL for 65 measurements in typical houses in the same city. The frequency distribution of these measurements shows a log-normal distribution. The concentrations did not depend on the distance from ground level but may depend on the ventilation rate of the room examined. The correlation between the concentration of radon daughters in WL in rooms above the first floor in the two high-rise buildings with the inverse of their ventilation rate were 0.73 and 0.67, respectively.

Publisher Summary The detrimental effects of people's activities on soil structure cause considerable losses of shade trees. This chapter discusses the types of activities resulting in construction injury, soil compaction, and their prevention and treatment. The construction activities cause a complex series of site changes that lead to the decline and eventual death of established trees. Most injuries result from the change of grade and mechanical injury to the trunk and roots. In most construction projects, land around new buildings or roads is graded level or into a gentle slope. The natural ground level to which established trees have adjusted the growth of their root system is uneven; therefore, grade changes around trees occur. To achieve the desired site preparation, the builder may either raise or lower the grade around trees. These changes in the original grade cause considerable injury and the eventual death of the affected trees. Raising the grade or filling over the roots of trees results in suffocation of the roots. The effects of fill are not distinctive and can be easily confused with a variety of infectious and noninfectious root stresses.

The paper describes the possibilities and consequences of district heating in densely populated urban areas. Special attention is paid to the applications utilizing subsurface space for production, storage and transmission of heat. The theme is enlightened by certain typical realised projects and case studies of potential ones. Comparisons between ground level and subsurface alternatives are performed concerning their technical, economic and environmental effects.

Because only few experimental data exist on the diffusion from high sources, a series of dispersion experiments was performed from a 213 m high meteorological mast. The tracer SF6, which was released at either 80 m or 200 m, was sampled at one measuring arc situated at 3 - 5 km from the mast. From the ground level concentration distribution we obtained values for the dispersion coefficients oy and oz. These parameters are compared with the dispersion coefficients of Pasquill-Gifford. They are also compared with the standard deviations of the wind direction fluctuations, measured at the source height. The results of fourteen experiments are discussed.

This paper examines the construction of twelve terraced houses (currently under construction), for farm workers in Tricase (LECCE) and gives an evaluation of energy savings. The site, situated in the Apulia region, has a Southern Mediterranean temperate climate. This project set out to combine passive solar elements with the use of local materials, while respecting the traditional habits of tenants and their use of space: in a word, the aim was to introduce solar technology without shocking local inhabitants. The two-story terraced houses have a kitchen and south-facing dining-room on the first floor and bedrooms on the second; the stair space is situated on the north side. The outside walls are made of a local stone called ‘tufo’, lined with a 5 cm layer of rigid polystyrene insulation, protected by plaster. The system for harnessing solar energy consists of: 1) direct gain through windows and a passive solar space at ground level; 2) an active domestic hot water collector system. From this space, a small fan forces warm air into a pipe-network located in the concrete floor. Calculations show that solar energy provides about 3/4 of the power required to heat the house and to supply it with hot water.

Seasonal averaged ground level concentrations for ozone have been calculated for the Netherlands by means of a lagrangian long-range transport model. The calculations indicate that the influence of European anthropogenic emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) on the growing season, day-time averaged (may to September, 10-17h) ozone concentrations in the Netherlands is small. A European VOC emission reduction will lead to a reduction in growing season averaged ozone and oxidant (sum of O, and NO x ) concentrations. A reduction of European NO emissions leads to a reduction of oxidant concentrations, but in areas with a high NO concentration such as the Netherlands, an increase in ground level ozone concentrations is predicted due to a shift in the photostationary equilibrium. When VOC emission reductions are combined with NO emission reductions a slightly decreased groundlevel ozone concentration is expected.

This chapter discusses the distribution of aerially applied small drops in conifer forests in Canada. The two aircraft flew either crosswind or into wind from one marker balloon to another 300 m away. The slower aircraft went slightly ahead of the faster and 20 m to one side. One aircraft then turned left and the other right. They converged again appropriately at the beginning of the spray track to make further runs over the same trees. Five spray applications were made altogether to the same site to reduce the variance attributable to wind speed at the time of spraying in crosswind runs. Only a single run is adequate for into wind runs. The results are presented for the five superimposed applications. Variance as a result of all causes is thereby lower than the levels expected from single spray runs. Drop size was measured on vertical paper targets at ground level using appropriate spread factors. The water-based spray with a TBM gave variable results with flying heights below 10 m.

Measurements effected on the site of LACQ, under different meteorological conditions, show a modification of the electrical parameters of the atmosphere before and during fall-outs of polluting elements. Measurements of the Electric Field permit the detection of the SO2 “cloud” above the station while small ion measurements can act as an indicator of the presence of SO2 at ground level.

This chapter focuses on Le Petit Cabanon situated in Roquebrune. The cabin shell was actually a kit, prefabricated in Ajaccio, Corsica, which was then customized according to Le Corbusier's modulor dimensions. He described the studio as a worker's shed from a construction site. The cabin differs slightly in that it is made of logs rather than planks or masonry. In its intentional rusticity, it suggests the image of a primitive hut. The cabin sits against the hillside almost like a cliff dwelling. Its roof aligns with the ground level above and its width coincides with the width of the terrace. A path leads from the cabin door, along the cabin front, to the side door of the studio. In Le Petit Cabanon, Le Corbusier stated his attraction for both the hut of the savage and the Parthenon, distant as they are in their degree of order and understanding. He began with a shelter of logs related more to nature than to the history of architectural form and built inside of it a modulor shell dimensioned according to his own version of the Greek system of measure.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes steel piling. Steel piling is of two types: driven piles—used for foundations or supporting structures—and sheet piles—used for retaining purposes. The corrosion rates of steel piles depend upon the specific location, but there are four zones: mud, fully immersed in sea water, intertidal zone, and spray-air. There is no requirement for protective coatings in the parts of the pile that are driven below ground level, except where they are exposed to high-chloride-containing material. In addition, where there is evidence of bacterial activity, some form of corrosion control—possibly cathodic protection—might be necessary. Piling is susceptible to mechanical damage where it is used on beaches or in harbor installations. The decision of whether to use protective coatings and there type and thickness, are determined by the economic factors.

The paper proposes aerospace standards for Indian tropical atmospheres up to altitudes of 20 km. Indian Meteorological Department balloon and rocket data for 16 stations were compared with Standard Atmosphere Data for Asian Tropics showing that annual mean ground level temperatures of 12 C near the Himalayan range should be excluded in determining a standard tropical atmosphere for India. A standard with a sea level temperature of 30 C and a lapse rate of 6.5 C/km was proposed up to the altitude of 16 km; a standard with a sea level temperature of 27 C and a lapse rate of 6 C/km was suggested up to 6 km. It was concluded that appropriate extremes for India should be 40 C and 5 C.

The paper describes the application of a mathematical model produced by SAI of San Francisco and developed for a European City by CCMC with SAI co-operation The model is grid type using 600 metres square to cover the city. Mixing depth is measured experimentally and fed into the model. The model has a generalized photochemical kinetic mechanism which will be discussed in the paper. The model has been applied to Turin and the input data have been collected by the Fiat Motor Company. This covered the emissions from vehicles, elevated point sources and ground level domestic heating. Fiat also provided the meteorological data from both fixed stations and a helicopter. The model has been validated by British Leyland on behalf of CCMC for Turin and a reasonable degree of correlation with monitoring has been achieved. Oxides of nitrogen and ozone have been predicted for a vehicle population estimated for July 1979. Predictions have also been made on the assumption that all vehicles could meet the European Regulations and the results compared with the situation which would pertain if no vehicles were presente Comparisons are made with Air Quality Standards.

Previous research as well as practical evidence has shown that due attention should be given to ground level wind effects produced in the vicinity of tall buildings. An experimental method suitable for use as a wind tunnel technique is presented and some typical results shown. The method is based on the erosion patterns formed by the saltation of fine grains of sand uniformly spread on a smooth ground plate.