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Previous studies have demonstrated that income has a significant effect on food demand in rural China. However, little research has focused on the dynamic impact of income and income distribution on food demand in rural China. Using China Health and Nutrition Survey data, this study employs a consistent two-step quadratic almost ideal demand system model, with addressed problems of endogeneity of total expenditure and zero shares, to estimate the food demand elasticities among adults in rural areas with regard to the different income strata. The results show that changes in income and income strata have significant effects on food demand in rural areas. Except for grains, all other food groups, including vegetables, oils and fats, animal products, and other foods, have positive income elasticities, and the rise in the income strata will lead to declining income elasticities for grains, vegetables, oils and fats, and animal products. Based on the estimated income elasticities, the food consumption projections indicate that reducing income inequality in rural society can improve the living standard of low-income people in terms of nutrient intakes.

Summary Background & aims The association between dietary patterns and frailty is less investigated in Asia. We aimed to investigate the prospective associations between dietary patterns and frailty index (FI) in community-dwelling Japanese older adults aged 60 years or older. Methods A 3-year cohort collected the data on sociodemographic information, lifestyle behaviors, comorbidities, medication history, depression status, nutrition, and physical function from 2014 to 2017. Five dietary patterns including “Mediterranean-style,” “sugar and fat,” “salt and pickles,” “noodle and alcohol,” and “protein-rich” dietary patterns were identified using principal component analysis from 20 food groups obtained using a validated food frequency questionnaire. A 54-item FI was constructed on the basis of a deficit accumulation model. This project aimed to investigate the longitudinal association between dietary pattern and frailty trajectories with annual measurements over a 3-year period using a generalized estimating equation. Result After excluding 108 participants with incomplete data at baseline, 666 participants (56.5% female, 69.4 ± 4.4 years) were included for longitudinal analysis. Our results demonstrated that adherence score to “sugar and fat” dietary pattern” (Q4 vs. Q1: mean difference [0.017], 95% CI [0.006 to 0.029]) and “salt and pickles” dietary pattern (Q3 vs. Q1: mean difference [0.010], 95% CI [0.001 to 0.020]; Q4 vs. Q1: mean difference [0.014], 95% CI [0.003 to 0.025]) were positively associated with change in FI. Adherence score to a “protein-rich” dietary pattern was negatively associated with change in FI (Q4 vs. Q1: mean difference [−0.013], 95% CI [−0.025 to −0.002]). Conclusions “Salt and pickles” dietary pattern and “sugar and fat” dietary pattern were positively associated with frailty. In contrast, “protein-rich” dietary pattern was negatively associated with frailty.

Food consumption, particularly of animal-based products, is considered the most important contributor to persistent endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) exposure. This study aims to describe the association between maternal diet during pregnancy and exposure to persistent EDCs using dietary pattern analysis. This study is based on subsamples of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) (N=422) and the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) (N=276) which uses data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway (MBRN). Women in both studies completed food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) during pregnancy, from which consumption data were categorized into 38 aggregated food groups. Maternal blood samples were collected during pregnancy and concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in serum/plasma were measured. Dietary patterns were identified using reduced rank regression, with blood EDC concentrations as response variables. Within ALSPAC, all patterns (PFAS, PCB, and OCP) were characterized by high consumption of meat, poultry, white fish, and biscuits. In MoBa, high consumption of sausages and burgers (representing processed meats), pasta, and chocolate bars characterized PCB and OCP dietary patterns, while high consumption of cheese characterized the PFAS pattern. Across both cohorts, PFAS patterns were characterized by high consumption of cheese, PCB patterns by high consumption of rice, and OCP patterns by poultry. Dietary patterns explained between 8 and 20% of the variation in serum EDC concentrations, with explained variance being the highest for PCBs in both cohorts. In conclusion, dietary patterns high in animal-based products appear to be associated with persistent EDC concentrations among pregnant women. Diet explains more variation in PCB concentrations than for other persistent EDC classes.

Background Low Dietary Diversity (DD) result in severe problem among the vulnerable group in low-income countries (LICs), whose diets are predominantly starchy staples. Lactating Women (LW) from LICs are considered a nutritionally vulnerable group. It results in many consequences on the health and well-being of children, households, communities, and the nation. However, there is little empirical evidence on factors contributing to low DD among LW in Ethiopia and the proposed study site. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the DD and associated factors among LW in Pawie district, Northwest Ethiopia. Methods A Community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 806 LW from March to May 2019 G.C. DD assessed using 24 h dietary recall methods with structured questionnaires. A mean dietary diversity score (DDS) was computed for ten food groups. Food insecurity measured using a 9-item Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). The multivariable logistic regression model was used to see the relevant associations. The variables which have a significant association with DD were identified based on AOR, P-value ≤ 0.05, and 95% Cl. Results A total of 806 LW aged 15–49 years were interviewed with a response rate of 100%. About two-third of LW had low DD (, Lactating women, Dietary diversity, Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, Pawie, Ethiopia.

Background FAO/WHO have encouraged national governments to create food-based dietary guidelines (FBDGs) to support healthy diets. However, little is known about the extent to which food supply composition aligns with FBDGs, thereby structurally supporting or undermining population-level adherence. It is also unclear how this alignment has evolved over time. The aim of this study was to determine to what extent the global food supply aligns with FBDGs, and to examine historical trends. Methods Descriptive time series analysis of food supply alignment (FSA), 1961–2013. FSA was characterised as a ratio dividing country-level food supply data by FBDG across four food groups: fruit and vegetables (FV); sugar (SU); fish and seafood (FS); and red and processed meat (RP). FBDG data was collected from guidance produced by international bodies, and from countries with published FBDGs. The food supply was estimated using yearly FAOSTAT data. A population-weighted average of this ratio was created for all countries included in the analysis, and stratified by region and country income. Findings FBDGs from 89 countries were included. Of those, 80% had country guidelines for FV, 34% for SU, 44% for FS, and 21% for RP. FSA (1.0 = perfect alignment) based on global guidelines showed a higher supply than recommended for FV (1.2), SU (1.2) and RP (1.1). FSA based on country guidelines showed a lower supply than recommended for FV (0.9) and a higher supply than recommended for SU (2.3), RP (2.3) and FS (1.4). FSA also showed substantial differences in levels and trends across region and country income. Interpretation As of 2013, food supplies were not aligned with national and international FBDGs and misalignment persisted across five decades with subtantial variation in trends based on geography and country income. The long running nature of these trends suggest that the transition toward sustainable and healthful food systems represent a signifiant global challange. Additionally, acknowledging the degree of misalignment between macro-level structural factors, such as the composition of the food supply, in relation to national or global food policy aims may further aid efforts for population level adherence., Highlights •F020 Little is known about how the food supply structurally supports population-level adherence to food based dietary guidelines. •F020 IResults demonstrated a general misalignment between domestic food supplies and national and international dietary guidelines. •F020 From 1961 to 2013 there has been greater alignment for fruit and vegetables but lesser alignment for sugar and red and processed meat. •F020 Alignment varied substantially between countries in different regions and income categories.

Objective: To examine adherence to physical activity (PA) and dietary guidelines, explore barriers to healthy lifestyle behaviours, and determine any associations with lipid-lowering drug therapy (LLT). Design: Cross-sectional analysis of self-reported PA using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire for Elderly (IPAQ-E), diet using the Australian Short Dietary Screener (Aus-SDS), and perceived barriers to healthy PA and dietary behaviours. Setting: Australia Participants: A convenience sample of 110 community-dwelling Australian adults aged ≥70 years. Results: Descriptive statistics and Pearson's χ2 were used to analyse adherence to guidelines and lifestyle barriers. Of 110 adults (mean age 76.8 ± 4.5y), 51.8% met PA guidelines, and none met all five dietary guidelines. Lipid-lowering drug therapy users engaged in less weekly PA (median 155, IQR = 70, 370 min) than non-users (median 420, IQR = 210, 675 min). Dietary intake did not differ by LLT status. Mobility and health concerns (68.1% vs 23.7%), and motivation (79.2% vs 36.8%) were more common barriers to PA among LLT users compared with non-users (p

The availability of and accessibility to adequate diets that meet individual nutritional needs and personal food preferences are key elements to guarantee food security. However, suitable solutions for quick assessments of dietary energy and nutrient intakes, in particular at the individual level, are still not available. Therefore, this study illustrates the validation and application of the recently developed calculator of inadequate micronutrient intake (CIMI) approach within a Ghanaian region. The basic structure of CIMI is formed by food frequency questionnaire findings and food composition tables that are used to identify region-specific food groups. CIMI validation includes the correlation and plotting of results obtained from the analysis of 24 h-Recalls with CIMI and a standard nutrition software (NutriSurvey®). Pearson correlation coefficients and Bland-Altman plots indicate method comparability and thus, the validity of CIMI. In comparison with recommended nutrient intakes developed by the World Health Organization, CIMI shows that dietary needs are largely met in the study region in adult men, women and children under-five. However, inadequate dietary intakes were identified for calcium, riboflavin and folic acid and in some subgroups for iron, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin D and niacin. Due to the user-friendly data entry system and the real-time survey analysis, CIMI will assure fast and valid dietary assessments and represents a first step towards the collection of large-scale datasets on individual dietary intakes. This approach will fill data gaps and serve as a profound basis for stakeholders to recommend appropriate policy to sustainably address nutrient deficiencies through coordinated agriculture for diversified food supplies. Keywords: Food security, Malnutrition, Micronutrients, Hidden hunger, Sub-Saharan Africa, CIMI

This data article provides the data related to the research article entitled “Motivations for meal and snack times: Three approaches reveal similar constructs” (Phan et al., 2018). The data consists of two datasets collected from two research techniques: online survey questionnaire and one-on-one interview. The data include details of the food and beverage items the participants consumed at specific eating occasions together with the motivations associated with consumption of those foods. The data also provides the food groups to which the food items belong, to facilitate different levels of data analysis to explore the relationship between food, eating occasions and people׳s motivations. Keywords: Survey questionnaire, Food choice map, Food choice, Motivation, Eating occasion

Harmonization of national consumption data for international comparison is an important but challenging work, yet to date there is a lack of comparable food classification system that incorporates food description in Taiwan. In 2015, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) released a new standardized food classification and description system called FoodEx2, which provides a flexible combination of classifications and descriptions. Based on FoodEx2 and a unique data set of daily food consumption offered by Taiwan Food Consumption Database, this study aims to provide a harmonized, food description incorporated, food classification system (HFDFC system) that captures all the useful details of food groups in exposure assessments. The HFDFC system was built according to six risk-assessment-related facets including food sources, processed products, cooking methods, manufacturers (brand), food additives and specialty foods. The HFDFC system includes 199 foods in the core list and 131 foods in the extended list. This study also compared the Acrylamide hazard index estimated under the HFDFC system with that under the National Food Consumption Database in Taiwan (NFCDT). The findings indicated that the HFDFC system provides useful and detailed information that helps the users to quickly identify food information in a harmonized manner and to reduce estimation bias. The HFDFC system is expected to facilitate global comparisons in the food risk assessment because it is built based upon EU Foodex2. Keywords: National food consumption database, Food classification system, Exposure assessment, Acrylamide

The application of ultrasound offers a wide range of possibilities in food preservation, especially when it is used combined with heat or other preservation treatments (natural antimicrobials). In this chapter, some relevant studies dealing with the impact of the ultrasound alone and/or combined with other preservation techniques on microbial inactivation from different food groups (fruits and vegetables, milk and derived products as well as fish and meat) will be discussed. In addition, some findings regarding the effects of ultrasound on nutritional and physicochemical properties of the products will be also presented.

Reducing food waste can contribute positively towards multiple sustainable development goals (SDGs) but the differences in the food waste across countries in terms of embedded nutrients and environmental impacts is not well-known. Here we assess the value of daily per capita food waste of 151 countries using two recent indicators for embedded nutrition losses (wasted nutrient days and wasted daily diets) and five indicators for environmental impacts. Globally, on average, 65 kg of food is wasted per year by one person of which 25% is through wasted vegetables, 24% through cereals and 12% through fruits. Daily wasted amounts of vitamin C, K, Zinc, Copper, Manganese and Selenium are especially high representing 25-50% of their daily dietary recommended intake (DRI) value. Cereals, fruits and vegetables are the three major food groups contributing the most to wasted nutrients followed by meat, dairy and eggs that contribute substantially to the wasted calcium, choline, riboflavin, zinc, and vitamin B12. Global average amount of food waste per capita per year contains 18 healthy diets meaning it can fulfil the DRIs of 25 nutrients for one person for 18 days. The embedded environmental footprints in average person's daily food waste are: 124 g CO2 eq., 58 Litre freshwater use, 0.36 m2 cropland use, 2.90 g nitrogen and 0.48 g phosphorus use. Cereals, meat, and sugar are major food groups contributing to environmental impacts. Our results show that different countries have widely varying nutrients and environmental footprints embedded in their food waste entailing country-specific waste reduction interventions. ISSN:0921-3449 ISSN:1879-0658

The amino acid content of foods commonly consumed by specific populations is rarely measured systematically, especially if we take into account the different ways that foods are usually processed or cooked. The objective of this study is to evaluate the amino acid profile of the representative foods on the Portuguese diet, with a particular focus on indispensable amino acids. We also aim to assess the amino acid intake of the population and the most common sources of amino acids within the Portuguese diet. To achieve these goals, the amino acid intake of Portuguese adults was assessed combining data of food consumption with the food analysis data from samples collected according to the Total Diet Study methodologies. Results of the amino acid profiles of food groups typically consumed in Portugal are reported in this paper. We found that red meat consumption is the most common source of amino acids of the Portuguese population, followed by white meat and fish. The main contribution of individual portions to the recommended intakes of essential amino acids were: cheese, 88%; red meat, 83%; fatty fish, 81% and seitan with 74%. This data could be used to show alternative amino acid sources within commonly consumed foods. Highlights: Amino acid content of foods included in Portuguese Total Diet Study was analysed; Red meat is the major source of dietary amino acids among Portuguese adults; Fatty fish and white and red meat provide the highest contribution to %RI of EAA. The scientific work was funded by the TDS Project, funded by European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 739568. GB Gonzales is a postdoctoral fellow of the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO). We thank the FCT - MCTES for its financial support via the project UID/EMS/00667/2019 (UNIDEMI). info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Food intake remains an essential component of human health life and productivity. Poor health inextricably threaten the ability of several developing nations to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by 2015, this stubborn threat is still a major concern to the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDG. 2030). The economic burdens of poor nutrition and ill health in the development of African continent cannot be overemphasized. Therefore, eating a varied, well-balanced food groups daily, in the recommended amounts is important. Considering the existing malnutrition and ill health situation report in Nigeria, rural farmer's dietary diversity and health record is important for pertinent policy evaluation since these people are the principal operators of the nations' food system but yet one of the most vulnerable category of the countrie's working class. The survey that gave this dataset was conducted through a multi stage sampling technique with a well structured questionnaires with in the months of September 2014 and April 2015 from households selected from 18 randomly sampled villages. The administered questionnaires were divided in seven sections namely; respondent's socio-economic characteristics, health and environmental profile, food utilization and nutrition, requested information about respondent's agricultural labour productivity, agricultural production cost and return, cost implication of health and nutrition and dietary diversity nutrition and other problems. The questionnaires were written in English language but translated in local language during the interview for ease of understanding by the participants, the survey successfully ended with a total of 420 properly filled and captured questionaires which was quite representative. The dataset is hereby made available as it is considered vital for policy recommendations.

For the first time, a multi-centre Total Diet Study was carried out in Benin, Cameroon, Mali and Nigeria. We collected and prepared as consumed 528 typical fatty foods from those areas and pooled these subsamples into 44 composites samples. These core foods were tested for a wide spectrum of POPs, including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), brominated flame-retardants (BFRs), organochlorine compounds (OCs), perfluoro alkyl substances (PFAS) and chlorinated flame retardants (CFRs).The POPs contamination levels were similar or lower than those reported in total diet studies previously conducted worldwide. In most cases, core foods belonging to fish food group presented higher POPs concentrations than the other food groups. Interestingly, we observed a difference in both contamination profile and concentration for smoked fish compared to non-smoked fish. Such finding suggests that the smoking process itself might account for a large proportion of the contamination. Further investigation would require the assessment of combustion materials used to smoke fish as a potential vehicle, which may contribute to the dietary exposure of the studied populations to POPs. Keywords: Food contamination data, PCDD/F, Polychlorinated biphenyls, Flame Retardants, PFAS

Global food demand is increasing due to population growth and dietary transitions, resulting from rising incomes, are associated with increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases. Improving the sustainability of the food sector is also critical for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. This study assesses for the first time the greenhouse gases emissions (Carbon Footprint – CF), the water footprint (WF) and the cost of three omnivorous diets recommended in Spain due to their health benefits: the Mediterranean diet (MD), the Southern European Atlantic diet (SEAD) and the Spanish dietary guidelines (NAOS). Analysis was conducted using standard Life Cycle Assessment and WF methods together with current Spanish food price data. The dietary energy recommendation of the SEAD is greater than that of MD and NAOS (11 and 15% respectively), and SEAD also has greater animal source food content than the other two diets. SEAD has a concomitantly higher CF, WF and cost scores in comparison with MD (+30%, +23% and +21% respectively) and NAOS (+15%, +9% and +21% respectively). Adjusting recommendations to meet the suggested Spanish adult dietary energy of 2228 kcal∙capita−1∙day−1 changed the environmental profiles of the diets and the NAOS has the highest environmental impact. However, the isocaloric diets had approximately the same cost. Analysis of the WF of the diets identified the major contribution of precipitation (the green WF) to the overall WF (88% of the total) and the significant contribution of animal-source foods to dietary WF. Regardless of the dietary scenario, better scores were identified for the Spanish recommendations analysed than those reported for other healthy diets identified in Europe. Differences in the recommended intake levels of certain food groups, cooking techniques and the origin of food products are behind these results. Environmental indicators should be considered alongside nutrition and health metrics when defining national dietary guidelines. Supporting citizens to follow healthy and environmentally-friendly dietary recommendations through, among other things, information campaigns and nutritional education programmes is essential. It is recommended the incorporation not only of health, but also of environmental indicators of these dietary options in the national dietary guidelines, as well as implementation of information campaigns and nutritional education programs among citizens to promote their adhesion since balanced dietary habits rich on plant-based products and low on animal-based ones involve multiple health and environmental benefits This research has been partially supported by a project granted by Xunta de Galicia (project ref. ED431F 2016/001) and by the Spanish National Research Agency (project ref. CTQ2016-75136-P). S.G-G. would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). S.G-G. belongs to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC 2013–032 and to CRETUS Strategic Partnership (AGRUP2015/02). All these programmes are co-funded by Xunta de Galicia and FEDER (EU). R.F.G., P.F.D.S., F.H. and A.D.D. are part of the Sustainable and Healthy Food Systems (SHEFS) programme supported by the Welcome Trust’s Our Planet, Our Health programme (grant number: 205200/Z/16/Z). S.G-G. gives thanks RYC-2014-14984 for financing the research stay in the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine where this study was entirely developed SI

In a response to recent growing demands for natural, “value-added,” and healthier food products, extensive investigations have been carried out on the incorporation of different aromatic plants with culinary and/or therapeutic applications in various conventional food products. Aromatic plants are abundant and affordable sources of natural antioxidants and bioactive substances with proven prohealth effects, which can exert various actions when incorporated in food formulations. These actions range from increased storage stability to enhanced physiological functionality of enriched products. Due to potent antioxidant activity, aromatic plants and their derivatives can be used to replace synthetic preservatives and antioxidants. A major constraint that limits their application in food is related to changes in sensory properties. This chapter discusses applications of various forms of aromatic plants (as a whole or their derivatives) in food systems and their effects on nutritional, textural, sensory properties and shelf-life extension. Major food groups will be encompassed (cereal, meat, fish, dairy, fruit, and vegetable products) including applications in food packaging.

The Mediterranean Adequacy Index (MAI) is an a priori dietary score created within the experience of the Seven Countries Study (SCS) of Cardiovascular Diseases, exploiting data of its feasibility study carried out in 1957–60 in Nicotera (Southern Italy). It represents the shape of typical dietary habits common in those times along the shores of several Mediterranean countries. The MAI was computed by dividing the sum of the energy percentages of typical Mediterranean food groups (bread, cereals, legumes, potatoes, vegetables, fresh fruit, nuts, fish, wine, and vegetable oils) by the sum of the energy percentages of less typical Mediterranean food groups (milk, cheese, meat, eggs, animal fats and margarines, pastries, sugar, and sugar beverages). High levels of the MAI correspond to a higher adherence to the Mediterranean dietary habits. The MAI was strongly ecologically related to the 25-year coronary heart disease death rates of the 16 cohorts of the SCS (R = − 0.84), to the 50-year death rates for the same end point (R = − 0.91), and to the 50-year all-cause mortality of the same study, after adjustment for socioeconomic status (R = − 0.62). Moreover the MAI performed satisfactorily also when applied to individual data of the SCS and other international studies.

India, with its rich culture and biodiversity, has varied food patterns in different regions. The vast diversity in foods that are consumed on a daily basis makes Indian diets unique. Traditional Indian diets contain ideal combinations of cereals, millets, pulses, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and spices. These foods are rich sources of not only vital nutrients but also of health beneficial phytochemicals, dietary fiber, antioxidants, probiotics, etc. This diversity earns Indian foods the status of functional foods. Traditional Indian meal patterns differ from region to region, but all contain a wide range of foods, normally including foods from each food group. The combinations of foods used in the traditional Indian meals are ideal and complement each other in terms of nutrients as well as nonnutrient bioactive compounds. This chapter presents some of the functional components and attributes of foods that are traditionally used in Indian diets.

The primary role of diet is to provide, in quality and quantity, enough nutrients to meet basic metabolic requirements of consumers. Cereals, legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts, vegetable oils, and related products are daily consumed by worldwide population as fundamental source of food energy, but also due to its richness in biologically active compounds with potential health promoting properties. There are thousands of bioactive compounds already identified and studied for their health promoting properties, however there still a lot of research to be done. This chapter describes the main food sources, as well as, health promoting properties, of some food components (phytosterols, fatty acids, polyphenols, carotenoids, glucosinolates, dietary fiber, isoflavones, and lignans). In fact, these compounds were selected due to its abundance in some of the major consumed food groups. Nuts, oilseeds, and derived products are well known for their richness in phytosterols and unsaturated fatty acids. In the last years, great attention has been given to this group of compounds because they are linked with several health benefits, namely antiinflammatory, antioxidative, anticarcinogenic activities, and cholesterol lowering capacity. On the other hand, fresh fruit and vegetables are the major sources of polyphenols, carotenoids, and glucosinolates. Nutritional guidelines promote the consumption of three to five daily servings of fruits and vegetables for protection against chronic diseases, such as cardio and neurovascular diseases. These foods, besides providing basic nutrition confers other significant health effects mainly due to its content in vitamins (especially vitamins C and A) minerals, polyphenols, and soluble and insoluble fiber. Lastly, cereals and/or legumes are the major sources of dietary fiber, lignans, and isoflavones. Besides their nutritional role, several scientific and epidemiological studies have shown that regular consumption of cereals and/or legumes and their related products are associated with reduced risk of various types of chronic diseases as cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and obesity, and some types of cancers as colorectal, prostate, breast, and estrogen-related cancers. These evidences can mean that regular consumption of cereals and legumes promote human health and consequent prevention of diseases. This work has been funded by National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, I.P., under the project BioCOMP (reference number: 2012DAN730). This work was also supported by the project UID/QUI/50006/2019 (FCT/MCTES). M. Antónia Nunes acknowledges the PhD fellowship (SFRH/BD/130131/2017) funded by FCT. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The objective of this dataset is to find out retail price differences between organic and conventional food items. Organic foods are often considered healthier and better quality than conventional foods and are sold at premium prices. However, first-hand data on retail price levels to substantiate that argument is meager. With a view to filling up that gap, we collected retail prices for pairs of conventional and organic food items in three supermarket chains (Save On Foods, Superstore, and Sobeys) in Edmonton, Alberta, for seven consecutive weeks in spring 2011. We find that the average prices significantly vary among supermarkets and among different food groups. Organic food prices show a different pattern than conventional food prices. Keywords: Organic foods, Comparative prices, Conventional consumers, Price differential

Under the ExpoCast program, United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) researchers have developed a high-throughput (HT) framework for estimating aggregate exposures to chemicals from multiple pathways to support rapid prioritization of chemicals. Here, we present methods to estimate HT exposures to chemicals migrating into food from food contact substances (FCS). These methods consisted of combining an empirical model of chemical migration with estimates of daily population food intakes derived from food diaries from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). A linear regression model for migration at equilibrium was developed by fitting available migration measurements as a function of temperature, food type (i.e., fatty, aqueous, acidic, alcoholic), initial chemical concentration in the FCS (C0) and chemical properties. The most predictive variables in the resulting model were C0, molecular weight, log Kow, and food type (R2=0.71, p

Objectives: To describe the dietary patterns of children inside and outside school and investigate their associations with sociodemographic factors and nutritional status. Methods: This was a multicenter cross-sectional study in which children of both sexes, aged 1–6 years, attending private and public daycare centers and preschools in Brazil, were evaluated (n = 2979). Demographic, socioeconomic and dietary data (weighed food records and estimated food records) were collected. Dietary patterns were derived by factor analysis from 36 food groups. Results: Four dietary patterns were identified inside school, and three outside. Inside school, the “traditional” pattern was associated to low income and presented high nutritional quality. The “dual” pattern was associated with low income and with high intake of added sugar and glycemic load. The “snack” pattern was associated with children enrolled at private schools and with high intake of added sugar and glycemic load. The “bread and butter” pattern was associated with high intake of added sugar and trans fat. Outside school, the “traditional” pattern was associated with high intake of saturated fat, trans fats, sodium, and total fiber. The “bread and butter” pattern was associated with high intake of trans fats and glycemic load, whereas the “snack” pattern was associated with overweight, private schools, high income, and high intake of trans fats, sodium, and total fiber. Conclusion: There are differences in the nutritional quality of dietary patterns inside and outside school, and heterogeneity in adherence to these patterns were observed across regions and socioeconomic classes. Resumo: Objetivos: Descrever os padrões alimentares de crianças dentro e fora da escola e investigar a sua associação com fatores sociodemográficos e estado nutricional. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo multicêntrico transversal, no qual foram avaliadas crianças de 1 a 6 anos de ambos os sexos, atendidas em creches públicas e privadas e pré-escolas no Brasil (n = 2979). Foram coletados dados demográficos, socioeconômicos e dietéticos. Os padrões alimentares foram derivados por análise fatorial a partir de 36 grupos de alimentos. Resultados: Quatro padrões alimentares foram identificados dentro da creche e três fora da creche. Dentro da creche, o padrão “tradicional” foi associado a menor renda e apresentou melhor qualidade nutricional. O padrão “dual” associou-se a menor renda e maior ingestão de açúcar de adição e carga glicêmica. O padrão “lanches” foi associado a crianças matriculadas em escolas privadas e com maior ingestão de açúcar de adição e carga glicêmica. O padrão “pão com manteiga” associou-se a maior ingestão de açúcar de adição e gordura trans. Fora da creche, o padrão “tradicional” foi associado a maior ingestão de gordura saturada, trans, sódio e fibra. O padrão “pão com manteiga” associou-se a maior ingestão de gordura trans e carga glicêmica, enquanto o padrão “lanches” associou-se às crianças com excesso de peso, de creches privadas, maior renda e com maior ingestão de gordura trans, sódio e fibra. Conclusão: Houve diferença na qualidade nutricional dos padrões dentro e fora da escola e a aderência a esses ocorreu de forma heterogênea nas regiões e classes socioeconômicas. Keywords: Food consumption, Dietary patterns, Children, School feeding, Factor analysis, Palavras-chave: Consumo alimentar, Padrões alimentares, Crianças, Alimentação escolar, Análise fatorial

Background The rapid nutrition transition China is now ongoing; the so-called westernisation of diets has been negatively affecting both human health and that of the environment. Against this backdrop, the Chinese government released new Dietary Guidelines (CDG) in 2016 and has been actively promoting them since. Our research makes use of quantitative modelling and aims to determine whether adjusting the average Chinese diet, so that it fulfils dietary requirements, could lead to nutritional and environmental co-benefits. Moreover, we want to determine the maximum reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) that could be achieved while simultaneously consuming a healthy diet. Methods A diet optimisation model is used to simulate, quantify and compare the effects on the consumption of 19 food groups, and associated levels of GHGEs, resulting from two different scenarios: consumers complying with either the CDG or the WHO dietary norms. Subsequent simulations set maximum emission limits for the optimised diets and progressively reduce emissions by 5%. Four waves of consumption and price survey data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey are used in the analysis, while LCA estimates of GHGEs are compiled from the appropriate literature. Findings Preliminary results show that outcomes under the two scenarios differ significantly, both nutritionally and in terms of GHGEs. Adopting the CDG would lead to a considerable intensification of emissions for both men and women, while adhering to the WHO norms would marginally increase emissions for women and slightly decrease emissions for men. However, we find a 10% reduction in GHGEs relative to current levels could be achieved, under both scenarios, through healthy and realistic dietary change. The maximum decrease in emissions achievable in the CDG model is 15%. The WHO models with a more drastic decrease in emissions (30% and 40%) involve major dietary change and lead to less balanced and varied diets compared with existing ones. Interpretation Our quantitative estimates show the potential for dietary guidelines to lead to environmental and health co-benefits, but only if they are specifically formulated to include environmental considerations. Achieving a major reduction in GHGEs through diets involves clear trade-offs between nutritional and environmental considerations. Funding None.

While most food is consumed at home, food eaten out-of-home plays an important role in diets and it has been associated with higher energy intake and higher body weight. Beyond prepared meals, there is limited understanding of what foods people buy out-of-home and where they buy them from. This study analyses out-of-home food purchases by food groups and food outlet types, and estimates socio-economic differences in these expenditure patterns. We used a nationally representative product-level dataset of expenditures (n=2,734,987) on foods and non-alcoholic beverages for out-of-home consumption for 9,704 respondents in Great Britain (June 2015-December 2017). Population weighted estimates of per capita weekly expenditures and shares of expenditure were derived for four outlet types and eight food groups. We used linear multi-level modelling to determine differences in expenditure patterns by socio-economic status (SES) characterised via occupational social grade. Out-of-home purchases make up 25-39% of total food and beverage expenditures. Mid- and high-SES respondents spent nearly twice as much (£17.76 and £15.11 weekly), compared to low-SES respondents (£9.69) for out-ofhome food consumption. A third of expenditures across SES (36-37%) were spent in venues other than restaurants or fast-food and takeaway outlets. Meals accounted for 60% of expenditures, but a third was spent on beverages (10-12% non-alcoholic cold beverages, 17-18% hot beverages) and 9-10% on snacks. Mid- and low-SES respondents had a greater share of expenditure in takeaway and fast-food outlets, supermarkets and convenience stores, and on cold non-alcoholic beverages. Overall, low-SES respondents spent less on out-of-home foods but the share of this expenditure across different foods or outlets varied less. While restaurants, fast-food and takeaway outlets were a major source of out-of-home purchases, a significant proportion was spent in other outlets. Policies targeting out-of-home consumption should therefore consider the full range of foods as well as the diversity of places where they are sold.

The current food system is destroying the environment upon which future food production depends. This is partly due to the food demands of the consumers that drive the current industrial food production system. Food production and particularly the dietary patterns and food habits of the population need to change. Thus, adopting a sustainable diet at the global level is essential. This chapter focuses on the effect of population-level dietary choices (type of foods) and habits (food waste) on environmental sustainability, and introduces four food determinants of sustainable diets from the consumer's perspective. These determinants are: (1) the proportion of foods in the diet from animal versus plant origin, (2) the proportion of processed versus whole foods, (3) the proportion of imported versus foods in-season, and (4) the proportion of food wasted. A sustainable diet comprises foods and food groups consumed in season, minimally processed, are mainly from plants, and are not wasted.

The collection and management of dietary data is a challenging part of nutrition research. Depending on the study design and the research hypotheses, the researcher should select and use appropriate methodologies. This chapter first aims to present available methods for collecting dietary data, along with their strengths, limitations, and applicability, including participant and staff burden. Various types of collected data are summarized (i.e., energy and nutrient intake and food group consumption) and their usefulness in nutritional research is discussed. The chapter also aims to put into perspective the importance of the validity and reproducibility of the various methods and gives some insight into the storage, manipulation, and preparation of data for analysis. It encourages planning for the future use of carefully collected and valuable dietary data.

A growing coalition of health professionals and non-profit organizations are taking on new food initiatives in the health care sector that align with alternative agro-food ideals. These actions are largely inspired and legitimized by rethinking “healthy food” from a systems perspective. Actors are shifting from a traditional nutrition model focused on eating the right balance of nutrients and food groups to an environmental nutrition model—examining the public health impacts of social, economic, and environmental factors related to the entire food system. This chapter provides a history of the environmental nutrition movement in hospital foodservice. We profile a key non-profit organization that is driving new food initiatives in the health care sector—Health Care Without Harm. We detail how the approach is implemented in hospital foodservice and what the main barriers to implementation are. We then present a case study of the University of Washington Medical Center to demonstrate how implementing an environmental nutrition program works in practice, reflecting on the motivations, achievements, and lessons learned.

Thermal treatment is one of the most common operations in food processing which aims to improve shelf life, palatability and digestibility of foods. In addition to beneficial effects, thermal treatment results in alteration in various physical and physicochemical characteristics of foods resulting in loss of nutritional and organoleptic properties. Thermal treatment is mostly applied through conventional techniques which are less efficient and cause more nutritional and organoleptic changes. Some of conventional techniques are currently being replaced by novel techniques including induction, ohmic and radiofrequency heating which promise better product characteristics. Present chapter summarizes the effect of thermal treatment on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of various foods categorized in different food groups.

This paper investigates the impacts of droughts on food expenditure and macronutrient consumption among rural Indian households. To isolate causal effects, I exploit random year-to-year variation in a dry shock, defined as the absolute deviation of rainfall below its long-run mean. I find that the dry shock has a statistically significant and negative effect on household nutrition. For a median dry shock, I esti- mate that households spend 1 percent less per capita per month on food and consume up to 1.4 percent fewer calories, protein, and fat. Disaggregating the effects by food group, I demonstrate that household diets become less balanced as a result of droughts: the dry shock leads households to rely primarily on cereals and to purchase less vegetables, fruits, pulses, and animal-sourced foods. Hence, droughts neg- atively impact not only the quantity but also the quality of rural household diets. Finally, I explore the potential channels for these effects. I argue that rather than higher food prices, a decline in household market and non-market income is the primary reason for lower household food consumption and nutri- tion during droughts. Taken together, these findings suggest that attaining food security amid extreme weather conditions requires an integrated approach that focuses on food not only for survival but also for leading a healthy and active life. This paper was written as part of the research project FOODSEC (Food Security in India: The Interactions of Climate Change, Economics, Politics, and Trade). The FOODSEC project was supported by the Research Council of Norway (Project No. 226057) during 2013-2016.

This chapter defines and contrasts meals and snacks as two different contexts for foods and drinks by a number of different points of view, including dictionary definition, time and place of consumption, size and energy intake, food groups and varieties, as well as consumer motivations. The chapter also introduces a new methodology approach, the so-called bottom-up approach, in studying food choices and motivations. Meals and snacks from a cross-cultural perspective are also examined, using data from two studies conducted in the US and Turkey. This chapter also summarizes the qualification of modern breakfast as a main meal, and its projected shift away from meal status.

Rutin, a phenolic compound, has antioxidant, anti-dyslipidaemic, and body weight-reducing effects. We evaluated the anti-arteriosclerotic, antioxidant, and body weight-reducing effects of rutin-rich Tartary buckwheat. We randomly divided 144 adult subjects into an active test food group consuming products containing rutin-rich Tartary buckwheat and a placebo food group. Body composition measurements and haematological and urine tests were performed at weeks 0, 4, 8, and 12, and at 3 weeks after termination. Atherosclerosis index and ox-LDL did not significantly differ between the groups. However, TBARS levels, BW and BMI in the active test food group were significantly lower than those in the placebo group at week 8 (p = 0.027, p = 0.030, respectively). BFP in the active test food group at week 4 (p = 0.038) was lower than that in the placebo group. Thus, rutin-rich Tartary buckwheat intake may be effective for body weight due to its antioxidant properties.

Theoretically, microbiological pathogenic risk assessment in foods requires a significant amount of information about food-borne illnesses, such as personal data of patients, disease identification, infective doses found in contaminated food, consumption level, preparation and storage conditions. Microbiological pathogenic risk assessment is quite costly, but necessary for a government as the country’s risk manager. Governments, especially in developing countries, avoid this limitation by using a “zero tolerance” strategy for all pathogens (no pathogen is allowed), which is not practical or realistic. In addition, it can be a nontariff trade barrier. As an alternative, the bacterial exponential growth equation can be modified and applied for establishing nonzero tolerant standards for certain types of pathogens. An exponential growth equation is modified as X = Y/2n, in which X is the dependent variable for “allowable dose of the pathogen in one serving of a food”; Y is the independent variable for “infective dose of a pathogen”; and n is the independent variable for “number of cycles of generation time for the pathogen” or “number of generation.” This information can be obtained from the scientific literature and food preparation, storage, and eating conditions. This equation has been implemented for establishing five microbiological pathogen standards in 33 notifications of 87 food groups in Thailand.

Diet plays a key role in the prevention of chronic diseases including cancer. This article discusses nutrients, selected food groups, and dietary patterns relating to carcinogenesis and cancer prevention.

The growing interest in using plant-derived extracts, including essential oils (EOs), as natural antimicrobials in foods is fueled by the need to reduce the use of synthetic food additives. In recent years, research on applications of EOs and their components in various food groups has intensified. Optimal food applications of EOs are limited by factors including high concentrations needed for microbial control, changes in sensory properties of foods, poor miscibility in aqueous food systems, and interaction with food matrices. Apart from direct addition to foods, antimicrobial EOs can be delivered by several techniques including incorporation in food packaging, encapsulation, and incorporation in biodegradable edible coatings. Choice of delivery technique is typically based on cost, stability, antimicrobial efficacy, transportation, and storage conditions. Further research is needed on toxicological effects and potential synergistic and/or additive antimicrobial effects of major and minor EO components to optimize the use of these natural antimicrobials in foods.

The increasing demand for “healthy” foods (beyond basic nutrition) stems from the awareness people have regarding the relationship between diet and good health. This has led to the development of new and innovative food products throughout the world. In recent years, the concept of functional foods has moved progressively towards the development of dietary supplements which can affect intestinal microbial composition and activities. Among the functional components, probiotics is one of the fastest growing categories of food for which scientific researchers have demonstrated therapeutic evidence. The term probiotics is defined by FAO/WHO as “live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host.” Probiotics are increasingly being added to food products in order to develop functional foods with health promoting effects, but until the last decade, dairy products were the primary food group being used for this purpose. Development of nondairy probiotic foods, such as fruit juices, may provide greater choice to consumers and be attractive to those who cannot eat dairy foods. Limited documentation exists concerning the use of probiotics with various food matrices. In this review, the development of fruit juice probiotics, their application in the health and food areas and new trends in probiotic products and processes are presented.

Foods are complex objects with several attributes contributing to defining characteristics interesting for nutritional analyses. Several ways of aggregating foods are possible to describe and evaluate eating behaviors (dietary contents, adequacy, exposure, environmental impacts, etc.). The difficulty of identifying all the inherent aspects and the needs or processing large set of data has led to design of food description and food aggregation systems. These systems facilitate information comparison making feasible the whole range of elaborations using a semi-automated food matching and data linking with further dietary assessment also facilitating the design of dietary survey carried out by exploiting advanced technologies.

In the present chapter, we reviewed observational studies published between 2014 and 2016 on the relationship among dietary patterns, foods, and food groups and late-life cognitive disorders. There was a direct relation between diet and changes in the brain structure and activity. Higher adherence to a Mediterranean-type diet was associated with decreased cognitive decline and other emerging healthy dietary patterns such as the Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension (DASH) and the Mediterranean-DASH diet Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay diets were associated with slower rates of cognitive decline and significant reduction of Alzheimer’s disease rate. Some foods or food groups traditionally considered harmful such as eggs and red meat have been partially rehabilitated, while there is still a negative correlation of cognitive functions with saturated fatty acids and a protective effect against cognitive decline of elevated fish consumption, high intake of monounsaturated fatty acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly n-3 PUFA.

Nutrients can act as dietary signals, influencing genes, and protein expression and, subsequently, metabolite production. The diversity in the individual genetic profile affects nutrient requirements, metabolism, and responses to dietary interventions. Humans have developed the ability to extract and combine food nutrients, altering the way they naturally exist and unbalancing the composition of food. Therefore, nutrition is not anymore “a way to fuel the body” but rather something much more complex and deeply entangled with the specific genetic features. Nutrigenomics emerges as the science that provides a molecular genetic understanding on how common dietary chemicals affect health. The interaction between genes and dietary chemicals, namely polyphenols, is the main objective of this chapter as well as the major progresses in polyphenols–gene interaction of specific food groups. The recent international initiatives related with nutrigenomics and the developing personalized nutrition are also presented and discussed.

Background/Aims: Evidence from the US suggests increased risk for weight gain among first-year university students (Freshman 15), but evidence in Australia is scant. This study aimed to examine weight and dietary quality of Australian first-year university students over 12-months. Methods: Twenty-two (5 males and 17 females) first-year university students with a mean age of 21.1 ± 6.8 years were recruited. Body weight was measured monthly and three-day food diaries (two university and one non-university days) were administered three monthly. Diet quality was analysed at zero, six and 12-months via AGHE food-group analysis. Weight and dietary changes over 12-months was analysed using general linear model for repeated measures ANOVA. Results: Females gained (+0.9, +1.5, +1.2 kg, p ≤ 0.05) at 2, 3 and 4-months, respectively, but returned to baseline weight after 12-months. Sodium (2702 mg/d), saturated fat (11.5% of total energy) and sugar (15.8% of total energy) intake all exceeded recommendations. Food group analyses revealed that intakes were not significantly different between university and non-university days, and remained unchanged throughout 12-months, except for lower discretionary sweet foods after 12-months (p = 0.03). Conclusions: First-year university students may not be consuming adequate servings from the AGHE food groups and female university students are prone to weight gain at the beginning of the academic year.;

The increased life expectancy in the last two centuries has led to a shift in age distribution. However, the additional life years are not always healthy life years, as aging is often accompanied by chronic diseases, cognitive decline, increased dependency, and frailty. Because these age-related conditions heavily influence individuals' quality of life and pose a large burden on society, healthy aging has become a major public health challenge. One of the key modifiable factors that influence healthy aging is nutrition. Traditionally, research on nutrition has focused on the effects of single foods or nutrients on health outcomes. Nevertheless, foods are combined into meals and meals constitute a dietary pattern. Studies on dietary patterns take into account quantities and combinations of foods, food groups, and nutrients, allowing for possible interaction effects. In this chapter we summarize what is known about the effects of dietary patterns on healthy aging. First, the current evidence on the association between dietary patterns and age-related diseases is summarized. Then, the associations of dietary patterns with comprehensive healthy aging indicators, including sarcopenia, inflammation, and frailty, are discussed.

Starting from the concept of an Optimized Mixed Diet for children and adolescents in Germany, food-based dietary guidelines were developed for an ovolactovegetarian and a vegan diet, based on 7-day sample menus. The derived reference food group intakes are similar to the omnivorous Optimized Mixed Diet. General critical nutrients in the omnivorous and vegetarian menus are vitamin D and iodine, which need supplementation (vitamin D) or fortification (iodized salt). In the ovolactovegetarian menus, energy and nutrient requirements can be fulfilled similar to the omnivorous menus, in particular when not only vegetables and fruit but also whole grains and pulses are consumed regularly. The latter food groups become increasingly important for a vegan diet. In this case, the combination of pulses, soy, and whole grains contribute to adequate protein and amino acids intake. In addition, the supplementation of vitamin B12 is necessary, as well as the use of cow’s milk substitutes enriched with key dairy nutrients. Regular pediatric check-up is recommended in addition.

Wild food is an iconic ecosystem service that receives little attention in quantifying, valuating and mapping studies, due to the perceived low importance or due to lack of data. Here, we synthesize available data on the importance of wild food as ecosystem service, its spatial distribution and relations between supply, demand and benefits in the European Union (EU), covering all terrestrial wild food groups. A wide variety of game (38 species), mushrooms (27 species) and vascular plants (81 species) is collected and consumed throughout the EU. Income, age, gender, possibilities for collecting, and cultural factors explain the importance of wild food. While the economic and nutritional values of wild food comprise a few thousands of the GDP or total consumption, over 100. million EU citizens consume wild food. Collecting wild food is an appreciated recreational activity; collecting and consuming wild food provide important cultural ecosystem services, including recreation and sense of place. Because of these benefits, wild food should be included in EU ecosystem service assessments. Better estimates could be made if better data on wild food abundance and production are available and by systematic inventories of participation in wild food collecting. © 2014 Elsevier B.V.

In the frame of the second French Total Diet Study (TDS), the 15+1 EU priority polycyclic aromatics hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analyzed in 725 foodstuffs habitually consumed by the French population, using gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, after pressurized liquid extraction and purification on PS-DVB stationary phase. The highest PAH concentrations recovered in foodstuffs corresponded to the following contributors: chrysene (25.7%), benzo[b]fluoranthene (15.0%) and benz[a]anthracene (9.0%) whereas the lowest concentrations were those of dibenz[a,h]anthracene, 5 methylchrysene and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene (below 2.0%). By food groups, the current highest levels of total PAH were detected in mollusks and crustaceans, followed by the different oil based products. To estimate French population's exposure, contamination data were combined with national individual food consumption data. Mean daily exposure to the sum of benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, chrysene and benzo[b]fluoranthene (PAH4) was estimated to be 1.48 ng/kg bw/day in adults and 2.26 ng/kg bw/day in children. The main contributors to PAH exposure for adults are fats, bread and dried bread products followed by crustaceans and mollusks. The margin of exposure (MOE) approach indicates that exposure to PAHs through food is not a major health problem for French consumers. Keywords: Total diet study, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAH4, Human exposure

Numerous studies have indicated that for phthalates, the intake of contaminated foods is the most important exposure pathway for the general population. Up to now, data on dietary phthalate intake are scarce and – to the authors' knowledge – not available for the Belgian population. Therefore, the purpose of this study was: (1) to assess the long-term intake of the Belgian population for eight phthalates considering different exposure scenarios (benzylbutyl phthalate (BBP); di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP); dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP); di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP); diethyl phthalate (DEP); diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP); dimethyl phthalate (DMP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP)); (2) to evaluate the intake of BBP, DnBP, DEP and DEHP against tolerable daily intake (TDI) values; and (3) to assess the contribution of the different food groups to the phthalate intake. The intake assessment was performed using two Belgian food consumption databases, one with consumption data of preschool children (2.5 to 6.5 years old) and another of adults (≥15 years old), combined with a database of phthalate concentrations measured in over 550 food products sold on the Belgian market. Phthalate intake was calculated using the ‘Monte Carlo Risk Assessment’ programme (MCRA 7.0). The intake of DEHP was the highest, followed by DiBP. The intake of BBP, DnBP and DEP was far below the TDI for both children and adults. However, for DEHP, the 99th percentile of the intake distribution of preschoolers in the worst case exposure scenario was equal to 80% of the TDI, respectively. This is not negligible, since other exposure routes of DEHP exist for children as well (e.g. mouthing of toys). Bread was the most important contributor to the DEHP intake and this may deserve further exploration, since the origin of this phthalate in bread remains unclear. Keywords: Dietary intake, Phthalates, DEHP, Belgium

Acrylamide is a monomer that can form in heated starchy food as a result of the Maillard reaction. The adverse effects of acrylamide in humans are neurotoxicity and carcinogenicity. The aim of this chapter is to present secular trends in food acrylamide in Europe, between 2002 and 2011, on the basis of the review of analyses performed by various authors, and derived from available databases and own data. The analysis of tendencies of changes in acrylamide levels in food based on the four different datasets demonstrates the decrease of acrylamide levels in a few categories of food and the increase in others. It shows that there are no constant and firm trends across food groups. Also, it should be emphasized that still a very high content of acrylamide is found in single samples of food products. This leads to the conclusion that the mitigation strategies used voluntarily by food manufacturers are ineffective or are not fully implemented as they do not result in decreasing the tendency in all categories of food.