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SUMMARY Competition for social influence is a major force shaping societies, from baboons guiding their troop in different directions, to politicians competing for voters, to influencers competing for attention on social media. Social influence is invariably a competitive exercise with multiple influencers competing for it. We study which strategy maximizes social influence under competition. Applying game theory to a scenario where two advisers compete for the attention of a client, we find that the rational solution for advisers is to communicate truthfully when favoured by the client, but to lie when ignored. Across seven pre-registered studies, testing 802 participants, such a strategic adviser consistently outcompeted an honest adviser. Strategic dishonesty outperformed truth-telling in swaying individual voters, the majority vote in anonymously voting groups, and the consensus vote in communicating groups. Our findings help explain the success of political movements that thrive on disinformation, and vocal underdog politicians with no credible program.

Deception emerges in early childhood and prevails in adults. Activation patterns in previous adults' task-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), though sensitive to state honesty on a specific decision, are less reliable reflecting trait honesty. Besides of state honesty, most previous neuroimaging studies about dishonesty suffer the generalization problem due to the major focus on adults with children unexplored. To investigate honesty associated functional brain networks variations, 98 healthy adults (Age: 18-28 y.o.; 49 males and 49 females) were invited to participate in a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rfMRI) study (Study 1). We investigated how functional connections between the caudate and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) change among adults who differ in self-reported trait honesty. Results showed that adults with higher trait honesty have increased functional connectivity from the caudate to the mPFC, which is identified as an honesty-related hub region in global brain connectivity analysis and connects more tightly to a wide range of brain regions including the amygdala. Study 2 compared functional connectivity between children with high vs. low lying frequencies (Age: 6-16 y.o.; 61 males and 39 females) based on a publicly accessible database of rfMRI. Consistent with findings in adults, increased functional connectivity from the caudate to the mPFC was found in less frequently lying children. Despite different honesty indicators of self-reported honesty trait in adults and parent-reported lying patterns in children, consistent findings have been noted in the two samples with regards to functional connectivity variations between reward-related and self-related brain regions. These findings suggest functional connectivity alterations between the caudate and the mPFC contribute to honesty variations in both adults and children.

Situational factors affect human behavior, among which dishonesty. Previous studies linked darkness to an increase in immoral behavior. Simultaneously, ‘dark mode’ is increasingly offered in software. Accordingly it is important to investigate the moral behavioral effects of dark mode. In a high-powered, pre-registered, and economically incentivized experiment, users of ‘dark’ and ‘light’ user interfaces were compared on honesty. Results showed no general effect of dark mode on honesty. However, dark mode promoted honesty in users that were awake for a longer period of time. As such, implementation of dark mode is safe and may even be encouraged.

Trading based on distributed optimization is becoming a world-wide trend in energy markets. Without proper trading mechanism design, however, participants might act dishonestly, which further leads to potential trust crisis and even market failures. This trust issue has been overlooked in state-of-the-art trading mechanism design. Blockchain, known as the enabler of trust, is promising to address this challenge. However, current studies have not detailed how blockchain can disable dishonest participants in energy trading, and primarily give qualitative rather than quantitative analysis of blockchain value in energy trading. Here, we propose an energy trading framework by marrying blockchain and distributed optimization, where blockchain enables check and balance among participants and disables dishonesty. Our results on a multi-energy district demonstrate in a quantitative way how our proposed framework can help prevent energy market failures caused by dishonest participants.

In this paper we experimentally explore how lying changes when its consequences are not certain. We argue that, when consequences are not certain, lying is morally less costly because the action of lying does not mechanically result in the obtainment of the benefit and this produces a lower feeling of responsibility in case the benefit is obtained. Moreover, we argue that the smaller the impact of lying on the probability to obtain the benefit the lower is the feeling of responsibility. We test our predictions using a modified die-under-the-cup task where misreporting, rather than delivering a higher payoff, increases the likelihood to get a prize. Overall we have four treatments where the reported outcome affects the probability to get a prize to a different extent. Contrary to our prediction, we do not observe any treatment difference suggesting that lying is independent to the extent to which it increases the probability to get a benefit. This result suggests that the willingness to lie to secure a benefit and the willingness to lie to marginally increase the probability to obtain a benefit are very similar.

Environments that encourage dishonest behaviour can compromise intrinsic honesty by altering beliefs about what is considered socially appropriate behaviour. I extend the incentivised Krupka and Weber (2013) elicitation method to the domain of lying and present two complementary studies that show how different social environments not only instigate different levels of dishonest behaviour but also change what a representative sample of Norwegian citizens perceives as socially appropriate when it comes to lying. publishedVersion

An extensive body of research investigates the emergence and characterization of dishonesty by means of the die-under-cup paradigm. However, most of the previous studies do not take into account the negative externalities of unethical behavior, since lying to increase the liar’s payoff only decreases the experimental budget. In this chapter, we experimentally investigate the effect of imposing negative externalities on a charity organization when cheating. In a sample composed by 192 students, comparison between our Baseline treatment and our Charity treatment reveals no significant difference on subjects’ reporting decision. Our analysis does not provide any statistical support to the hypothesis that dishonest behavior may be lower when negative externalities associated with unethical behavior are affecting a charity organization rather than the experimental budget.

Many studies have investigated the individual determinants of cheating behavior in laboratory experiments. In this chapter, we focus on the propensity to cheat of adolescents. By employing the results of a lab-in-the-field experiment and combining them with the results of a detailed questionnaire including questions on personality traits and demographic characteristics, we study the determinants of cheating in a population of Italian boy and girl scouts aged 12–16. A principal component analysis clearly identifies the important role of self-confidence—while the role of risk propensity is at most marginal. A study of interaction between traits, implemented through decision tree classifiers, confirms this main result and the validity of the PCA approach; moreover, it provides suggestive evidence of the importance of gender and risk propensity in specific subsamples of the population.

Dishonesty in daily life is widespread. Fare-dodging in public transport illustrates ordinary dishonesty. This chapter investigates how the size of fraud affects the behavior of actual fare-dodgers and non-fare-dodgers in a framed lab experiment. In our public transportation game, participants make successive decisions between buying and not buying a ticket for various distances. Between subjects, we vary whether gains are increasing or not in the distance traveled. Within subjects, we vary the probability of being inspected and the amount of the fine. We show that, in the game, fare-dodgers in real life fraud more than non-fare-dodgers. The fraud rate is lower for longer distances even in the absence of control, suggesting an increasing moral cost of fraud which does not depend on the relative payoff gained from cheating. Finally, both fare-dodgers and non- fare-dodgers respond to changes in the probability of being inspected and the severity of the punishment.

Using data initially reported by Hao and Houser (2017) , this chapter provides evidence from a laboratory experiment that having to predict and announce one’s own future possibly dishonest actions can deter misconduct. We specify and estimate a model showing that this deterrence effect owes to an interaction of people’s twin desires both to earn profits from cheating and to maintain a positive self-image. We find that a possibly dishonest action taken after it is predicted is more likely to be perceived as dishonest than an equivalent action absent prior prediction. Consequently, requiring announcements promotes honest actions among people who care about maintaining an honest self-image. Moreover, we find that profit incentives to cheat decrease as a possibly dishonest action becomes more likely to be perceived as dishonest, and are ultimately fully extinguished: when a possibly dishonest action is almost certain to be perceived as dishonest, the level of profit from dishonesty does not impact the likelihood one chooses to cheat.

Dishonesty is a pervasive human behavior occurring virtually in all contexts, and manifests itself as the disposition to lie, cheat, fraud, or deceive. This behavior usually gives individuals a personal advantage at the expense of the society. This chapter briefly reviews the contributions included in the book, which aims to provide a rigorous and comprehensive overview of dishonesty, collecting state-of-the-art research on this topical field adopting a behavioral economics perspective, which focuses on the effects of psychological, social, and cognitive factors of the decision-making process. This book highlights the importance of the empirical research methodologies to study dishonesty both in the lab and in the field.

We collected almost 700 questionnaires across Europe through a web-based anonymous survey in which current and former university students were asked to self-report whether and to what extent they cheated during written exams at university. We aimed at studying cross-country differences in cheating attitudes, once controlling for important social factors such as the beliefs about peers’ unethical behavior, the level of trust in others and the perceived level of opportunism in the society. We find that half of respondents committed cheating at least once during their academic career. Cheaters are more likely to report that their classmates cheated, and that in general people can be trusted. In contrast, being aware of the sanction and attending a public university are negatively correlated with self-reported cheating. Overall, we do not find cross-country differences in cheating attitudes, meaning that the social and cultural factors we control for absorb the idiosyncratic country effects. Our results however suggest the existence of a widespread phenomenon across all countries under investigation that need to be mitigated.

Dishonest behavior brings lasting social costs by undermining personal relationships as well as trust in larger social institutions. However, individuals who learn how to deceive skillfully and strategically will find that they can use this ability to manipulate the beliefs of other people and shape social interactions. This chapter describes how research conducted from a developmental psychology perspective can inform our understanding of how and why individuals engage in dishonesty, and how the social costs can be mitigated.

Decades of economic reform have led to the unprecedented growth of economically driven rural-to-urban internal migration in China. According to China's 2010 census, more than 61 million children between birth and 17 years old were “left behind.” In this lab-in-field experiment, we explore whether parental migration status has a significant influence on whether or not a child chooses to cheat. We study samples from four populations: rural children left behind by both parents, rural children left behind by one parent, rural non-left-behind children, and urban children. We find evidence of cheating among all four samples. However, grade 3 urban students have a significantly greater propensity to cheat than either grade 3 rural students or grade 5 students whether rural or urban. Parental migration status has no effect on the propensity to cheat among rural students in grade 3, but by grade 5 rural children with both parents at home appear less likely to cheat than those for whom both parents are absent.

Lying is a form of communication that involves two parties: the deceiver and the deceived. The deceiver intends to communicate false impressions or information. The deceived, however, must participate in the lie—at least on some level. This is either by virtue of learned apathy, ignorance, bias, or overconfidence (barring mental infirmity, of course). Human beings are gullible for a number of reasons, including a general tendency to believe others are telling the truth, and to be cognitively overwhelmed, and then irrationally convinced, by emotional arguments and displays. Consequently, allegations of crime laden with heavy emotion are more likely to believed (irrespective of the facts and evidence)—given the prevalence of Truth Bias and the Affect Heuristic, especially in the presence of other factors that tend to increase overall gullibility. Lies generally manifest as one of the following constructs of dishonesty: Complete Deception; Half-Truths; Exaggerations; and Pertinent Omissions. Lies are told for one of two reasons: either the deceptive person believes they have more to gain from lying than from telling the truth; or the deceptive person is incapable of discerning what the truth is, either temporarily or owing to some permanent mental defect. Lies may be divided into two distinct motivational categories: prosocial lies that are constructed to benefit others; and antisocial lies that are selfish. There is no technique or piece of technology that is capable of reliably determining whether someone is telling a lie. The scientific research demonstrates that most people do not detect lies with much greater accuracy than they would than chance (e.g., a coin toss); and the so-called “experts” in deception detection fair only slightly better. Pseudoscientific techniques of deception detection persist because they are subjective and open to interpretation. Subjective interpretations mean that analysts can shape the character of results in favor of prevailing political winds or to favor any preferred narrative.

Many situations require people to act quickly and are characterized by asymmetric information. Since asymmetric information makes people tempted to misreport their private information for their own benefit, it is of primary importance to understand whether time pressure affects honest behavior. A theory of social heuristics (the Social Heuristics Hypothesis, SHH), predicts that, in case of one-shot interactions, such an effect exists and it is positive. The SHH proposes that when people have no time to evaluate all available alternatives, they tend to rely on heuristics, choices that are optimal in everyday, repeated interactions and that have been internalized over time; and then, after deliberation, people shift their behavior towards the one that is optimal in the given interaction. Thus, the SHH predicts that time pressure increases honesty in one-shot interactions (because honesty may be optimal in repeated interactions, while dishonesty is always optimal in the short run). However, to the best of our knowledge, no experimental studies have tested this prediction. Here, I report a large ( N = 1013 ) study aimed at filling this gap. In this study, participants were given a private information and were asked to report it within 5 s vs after 30 s. The interaction was one-shot, and payoffs were such that subjects had an incentive to lie. As predicted by the SHH, I find that time pressure increases honest behavior. In doing so, these results provide new insights on the role of time pressure on honesty, and provide one more piece of evidence in support of the Social Heuristics Hypothesis.

Librarians at Austin Peay State University (APSU) in Clarksville, Tennessee, created a fun and engaging video informing students about academic honesty and dishonesty, with the focus on responsible decision making instead of negative consequences. “Plagiarism: Making the Right Choices” is a fully functioning video tutorial embedded in the university’s learning management, system, as well as the library’s website, making it accessible from multiple electronic devices. Included are assessment tools for instructors and librarians and immediate quiz feedback for students. The final product is a successful tutorial that works with students’ different learning preferences and is customized for our campus community. The content serves as an introduction to academic honesty, the research process, and understanding student behavior in our first-year experience course, APSU 1000—“Transition to the University,” as well as a refresher in graduate-level courses.

This chapter provides an overview of the offenses commonly investigated in relation to health service fraud. It explains the ways in which these offenses are commonly committed, the agencies that are charged with investigating and prosecuting them, and explores some of the difficulties that may arise with the increasing involvement of private companies in health service provision.

This chapter examines the value, objectives, techniques and methods, and problem areas of undercover or covert investigations. The chapter also addresses techniques and methods to consider, including how to arrange for undercover agents, with six points to consider for agent selection as well as federal guidelines that apply to employer use of employee misconduct information based on undercover investigations; penetrating for job placement, with a sample investigation engagement agreement and the importance of creating a written employee policy covering covert investigations; reporting, including a sample case report; and concluding the case by administrative rather than judicial action and the necessity of “terminating” the employee who was undercover. Problem areas addressed include entrapment, deception or double-cross, and absence of professionalism.

This chapter differentiates between covert and overt crimes, defines the characteristics of a covert crime, and identifies the investigative strategies to practice in order to surface covert activity: deployment of undercover agents, physical inventories, refund letter circularization program, daily audit of cash registers, checking register transaction numbers, integrity testing, bank check reconciliation, cash counts, exit interviews, checking for “ghost” employees, verification of vendor or resource, intelligence surveillance, physical inspections, suggestion box and awards system, financial analysis, and odometer checks. The chapter also explores shoplifting as a covert crime, details fifteen potential strategies used by shoplifters, and provides detection strategies for shoplifting surveillance.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the use of psychological weaknesses to manipulate the targets. It discusses baiting, through the use of the Trojan horse concept, implemented in either software or hardware. This allows using something desirable to the target, such as a game, application, USB drive, and so on, in order to bait them into willingly accepting the package containing the payload. Such tactics are generally very successful, due to human curiosity and desire. It also discusses the con, in which it attacks the greed, dishonesty, or gullibility of the target in order to separate them from their resources, embarrass them, or blackmail them. It discusses a few of the common types of cons and how they might be adapted to the use of the Zukin. It also focuses on the need to carefully evaluate situations in which one might be running a run, in case one is actually a target of a counter con, either by a scam baiter or through a law enforcement sting. In these cases, one is best sticking with more simple cons that do not inherently violate the law.

This chapter presents some lessons about controlling employee dishonesty. Employees at all levels may steal from their employers. Protection officers cannot prevent all employee theft, but they can have a positive impact. Practical methods to prevent theft have been provided, including tips on what to look for, what to report, and what actions to take. Workplace crime is not limited to theft; sabotage by employees can also occur. The control of sabotage is similar to the control of theft in most cases. Theft prevention is a good idea at any time. Today, it is especially important because of the economic climate.

Strikes are almost an inevitable occurrence for many unionized companies and strike costs are an integral part of the labor costs to maintain the operation. This chapter discusses the types of strikes, several procedures before or during the strike, and employee misconduct and related disciplinary techniques. Work stoppages as a result of labor relation activities and difficulties that arise primarily in three instances are: wildcat strike or illegal walkout, lawful strike, and lockout. The role of the protection officer and his/her activities can have a major influence on labor relations at any given company, and should be aware of the security procedures during or prior to a strike such as access control, escorts, police assistance, communications, fire safety, picket line surveillance, and documentary coverage. The protection officer should be aware of the types of dishonesty and employee misconduct such as employee theft, sabotage, employee fraud, and safety violations. Several disciplinary actions that include written warning, suspension, demotion, and termination or discharge can be taken by the protection officer against an employee for dishonesty and misconduct at workplace The role of the protection officer can be vital for the protection of company assets, especially during a strike.

From our own human experience, we know that dishonesty such as exaggerating or lying can sometimes pay off. Animals may also be tempted to cheat by producing signals that mislead receivers into making decisions that benefit the sender. However, if a signal’s dishonest use increases sufficiently, receivers will be selected to ignore it, and the signaling system will collapse. The problem of signal honesty has become one of the most important issues in current studies of animal communication systems. This article reviews the history of evolutionary thinking about the question of whether animal signals provide reliable information, summarizes the signaling game-theoretic models that have described the conditions under which largely honest signals can persist, and presents some of the better examples of both highly reliable signals and cheating.

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on students' reasoning about the acceptability or unacceptability of cheating in different situations. Academic cheating is part of a larger epidemic of societal dishonesty that is fed by decreased opportunities for advancement, coupled with increased individualism and a decline in concern for the welfare of others. Lying, stealing, and deceiving have become the commonplace means that the icons of success use to advance their personal wealth and power. Accordingly, the incongruity between students' stated beliefs and self-reported behaviors related to cheating may have a lot to do with the broader forces at play in this achieving society. The message to children and adolescents seems clear—material success comes before moral integrity. Cheating on a test may be a small price to pay if it helps securing admittance into a prestigious college or university. It is not surprising, therefore, that pressure for grades is often the primary reason students cite for cheating.

Publisher Summary Cheating on academic work involves a diverse array of psychological phenomena, including learning, development, and motivation. These phenomena form the core of the field of educational psychology. From the perspective of learning, cheating is a strategy that serves as a cognitive shortcut. Whereas effective learning often involves the use of complex self-regulatory and cognitive strategies, cheating precludes the need to use such strategies. Thus, students may choose to cheat either because they do not know how to use effective learning strategies or because they do not want to invest the time in using such strategies. From a developmental perspective, cheating may occur in different quantities and qualities depending on students' levels of cognitive, social, and moral development. From a motivational perspective, learners report many different reasons for engaging in academic cheating. Some students cheat because they are highly focused on extrinsic outcomes such as grades; others cheat because they are concerned with maintaining a certain image to themselves or to their peers; still others cheat because they lack the requisite self-efficacy to engage in complex tasks or because of the types of attributions they have developed.

This chapter discusses the actions that can get a project engineer dismissed from the job. When it comes to business ethics, the only viable strategy is obedience of laws, regulations, and important organizational ethics policies. The vast majority of people in business have integrity, but there are those also who do not. It is not uncommon for significant-sized established companies to have terminated a few personnel for illegal or unethical behavior. The chapter describes classified, proprietary, and other confidential information. All organizations must rely on their employees and officers to accurately record business information. Organizations use this information to make decisions, file accurate financial and tax reports, and conduct business of all types. If a culture of dishonesty and false reporting develops, the whole organization's reputation can become tainted.

This chapter deals with specific personnel management issues that one will face as a senior scientist. One needs to be prepared to recruit, hire, mentor, promote, and fire personnel as one advances in one's career. As one progresses in one's career, one will continue to refine one's recruiting skills. Recruiting occurs through multiple media, including scientific publications, presentations, advertisements, the Internet, and word of mouth. For certain job categories and in certain institutions, such as state or federal institutions, one will need to hold a position open for a specific length of time after one has placed a public advertisement, usually in the print media. When one wants to hire someone, one should spell out in advance what one needs and expect from a potential employee. This information is invaluable during the interview process. Promotion from the position of an assistant to that of an associate professor often coincides with a tenure decision in the basic sciences. Employees may need to leave their job for many reasons, including incompetence, unsatisfactory performance, insubordination, inappropriate relationships or contact with fellow employees, breach of confidentiality, dishonesty, or criminal behavior.

Professional ethics have to do with one's professional behavior as it affects others. Ethics are determined by cultural, social, and professional values, and may not be governed by laws. Professional behavior relative to communication may be governed by policies or codes of ethics of a society, a company, an agency, or a publisher, and the ethical decisions may sometimes be guided by those policies. In scientific communication, professional ethics, copyrights, and patents are the main issues of ethical and legal concern. Scientists are interested in discovering truths, and any communication among them must be carried out with a high degree of accuracy and integrity. In scientific communication, two kinds of ethical errors are unforgivable: distorting one's own data and plagiarizing the work of others. Other breaches of integrity are also deplorable but sometimes hard to diagnose. Distorting data intentionally is inexcusable, but that which is not intentional can also be detrimental to science and to one's reputation. Plagiarism is a dirty word in scientific writing and is as inexcusable as is distorting data. Ethically, it is disrespect not to recognize the ownership of the property of other writers. Like other forms of dishonesty, plagiarism is easy to distinguish when it is blatant. Every scientist tries to achieve copyrights and patents for their work that guarantees originality and reputation.

Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the problem of violence among children and attachment disorder in families, the child welfare system, and society. Attachment disorder is one of the most easily diagnosed and yet commonly misunderstood parent-child disorders. Many social service and mental health professionals, although adept at assessing behavioral and emotional disorders in children, are not familiar with attachment concepts. Children with attachment disorder have internalized antisocial values, belief system, and patterns of relating: dishonesty, coercion, aggression, mistrust, betrayal, and selfishness. These children lack the ability to identify and manage emotions, communicate honestly, regulate impulses, and solve problems effectively. Treatment must emphasize prosocial coping skills so that they can function successfully in families and in society. Teaching prosocial coping skills not only reduces acting-out, but also builds self-confidence and self-esteem. Specialized parenting skills are required in order to be successful in their parenting role. A significant amount of evidence accumulated over the past 25 years indicates that early intervention and prevention programs are effective for at-risk children and families. Early intervention and prevention programs have shown to enhance parent–children attachment, foster children's cognitive and social development, and reduce later violence.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the research on trust and betrayal. The integration of research on trust and betrayal affords a unique opportunity to view the complex and dialectical nature of social life. Research and theorizing on the phenomenon of trust suggest four general conclusions: (1) some minimal level of generalized trust appears to be necessary for normal social life and possibly for the development of specific relationships. (2) Research evidence overwhelmingly supports the contention that higher levels of both generalized and relational trust are associated with enhanced functioning of individuals. (3) Relational trust appears related to and is possibly necessary for many of the basic mechanisms of relationship development. (4) Recent conceptualizations of relational trust afford numerous testable hypotheses regarding the role of trust in the development and dissolution of relationships. Violations of trust may be summarized as four basic conclusions: (1) betrayal is fairly commonplace and most likely to occur in one's most important relationships. (2) Betrayal is associated with stable biographic and personality based individual differences. (3) The consequences and meaning of betrayal seem to vary as a function of one's perspective as either the victim or the instigator. (4) Violations of trust do not always result in the termination of a relationship.

Publisher Summary Humans, like animals, perceive the world through ecologically based invariants. In creating artificial worlds, one must understand the human mappings of invariants to percepts and instill them into one's tools. The building blocks underlying the artificial worlds require both physical and semantic representations that support, and directly relate to, the invariants of human perception. This combination of defining the issues and discovering their innate representations is often the key to solving any problem. With the description of evolving toolbox, objects could also express a small range of emotions or, rather, they would be perceived as expressing these emotions by use of the perceptual invariants. Even inanimate objects could be made to visually embody emotions such as happiness and sadness, honesty and dishonesty, naivete, gloominess, excitement, age, or personal worth. With the proper toolbox, it becomes much easier to create artificial worlds with objects that look and behave in ways that one can understand and have natural interactions.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the experiments on Deviance with a special reference to dishonesty. Deviance is defined as behavior, which violates a norm or breaks a rule. The chapter concentrates on deviant behavior prohibited by the criminal law, or which violates other widely recognized moral norms of Western society now. An experiment is a study of the effect of changes in one or more independent variables on one or more dependent variables, its defining feature being the control of independent variables by the experimenter. The chapter describes field experimentation with members of the public unwittingly participating as subjects likely to have the greatest internal and external validity of any research method. Research on deviance is “nonexperimental” and has low internal validity, while the research by experimental social psychologists intends to have low external validity. When true experiments involving random allocation cannot be arranged, quasiexperimental analyses should be considered. One of the major problems in carrying out experiments with deviance as either a dependent or an independent variable or both is to operationalize deviance, and this contribution has reviewed operational definitions used in experiments up to now. Special attention is given to experiments on dishonesty. These have tended to investigate immediate influences and situational factors, neglected in the “nonexperimental” research..

This chapter discusses EDP security. There are three management principles basic to EDP security: (1) the never-alone, (2) limited-tenure, and (3) separation-of-duties principles. The never-alone principle states that as the personnel resources of the center permit and is consistent with its director's threat evaluation studies, two or more persons, designated by the EDP center director and known to be professionally competent and reliable, should witness every security-relevant action and attest to it by signing a suitable memorandum or log. The second security management principle is that of limited tenure. No person should ever be left in any security-related position so long that he or she begins to believe that the position is exclusive or permanent or the duties wholly predictable. The third and most important management principle is separation of duties. Insofar, as the personnel resources of the center permit and consistent with management's appraisal of the threat of employee dishonesty, no person should have knowledge of, be exposed to, or participate in any security-related functions outside of his or her own area of responsibility.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses identity development in adolescence. Adolescence is the stage of the life cycle that is most crucial in the crystallization of identity. Identity as a concept refers to a collection of traits and personal characteristics. Traits are habitual patterns of behavior, such as honesty/dishonesty, happiness/sadness, or intelligence/stupidity. Personal characteristics include physical attributes, such as height, color of hair and eyes, and condition of skin; and background factors, such as ethnic-group membership and religion. Because identity is so central to psychological functioning, it is important throughout the life cycle. Identity in adolescence is shaped by resolutions of earlier crises and will evolve further in later stages. Infancy and childhood are important because they result in identifications and identity elements that contribute to the resolution of the adolescent crisis of identity. These early stages are preludes to the central normative crisis of identity in adolescence. When an adolescent makes commitments contributing to an adult identity, particularly occupational decisions, before having a chance to experiment freely with possible roles, the sense of identity that results has no proper foundation. Such an identity results from commitment before the experience of an identity crisis has run its course.

This chapter presents an analysis of Jay's case study. The statements of the shop managers at Jay's indicate that they had a stereotype of the ideal factory worker as a man who attended regularly, kept factory hours, adhered to factory rules, and recognized the authority of management to determine, in relation to the situation, what workers ought to do. But most of the workers did not behave like this. They were critical of the way in which management, in the shape of the foreman, allocated work to them. They refused to follow the rules laid down by management for the accurate booking of work. They did not observe the official times for starting and stopping work. And many of them lacked what managers considered a proper respect. In short, they did not conform to management's ideal expectations of worker behavior. But management did not judge their behavior by this criterion. Their judgments were based on how workers could reasonably be expected to behave in the situation created for them by management. It was expected that they would attempt to manipulate the incentive scheme in their own interests, and up to a point beyond which manipulation became flagrant dishonesty, these attempts were tolerated. Thus, worker behavior was judged by reference not to the ideal standard but according to a concept of behavior reasonable in the situation.

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on maladjusted children, who reveal problems associated with their social and emotional development. A child who is not socially and emotionally adjusted is not likely to develop unaided into an integrated, mature personality. Maladjusted children reveal a wide range of disorders including withdrawal, dishonesty, and petty thieving. Children may even be inconsistent in the degree to which they show maladjustment. Behavior troubles at home may be contrasted with normal behavior in school and vice versa. Similarly, troubles may have their origin in school, but the parents have to deal with the consequences. Again, the reverse of this is also true. Two further symptoms of maladjustment, bullying and refusal to go to school, are especially relevant to the school situation. The chapter discusses some of the factors which help to develop social and emotional maturity and without which, maladjustment is likely to appear. One of the crucial factors is security. The child also requires affection, a genuine love of himself for what he is. A third factor in correct emotional and social development is the feeling of fitting in somewhere, of having some sort of significance and of playing a role in society with some degree of success. Maladjusted children require more help than what can be given by the adults the maladjusted children normally come into contact with. A comprehensive Child Guidance Service has to be within reach of every home and school.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses costing techniques. The result of accounting techniques can only be a paper model and controls by such techniques are sometimes seen as just an attempt to disclose inefficiency or dishonesty on the part of the staff of a company by means of discrepancies in their own paperwork. The following are the objectives of a good control system: (1) nothing should ever happen without the authority of a responsible person; (2) once something has been authorized in this way, it should not be lost sight of; and (3) if anything requiring to be authorized conflicts with existing authorized plans, the conflict should be resolved to the greatest advantage. The basic document from which the payroll is prepared is the time card or piece record on which is set out the extent of the services to be remunerated; the gross wage due for the week is calculated and written on this document, which then forms the media from which the payroll is prepared.