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Water quality worldwide is poor even though some advanced countries enjoy relatively clean water. This compels almost 1.2 billion people to drink unclean water at present. According to the United Nations, 2.7 billion people will not have clean water by 2025. Earth is a water planet, composed of 70% water; only 3% is fresh water and only 0.06% is available without problems. Over 80 countries in the world suffer from water shortages. Contamination of water from various chemicals is a major point of concern because countless inorganic and organic compounds can pollute our groundwater and surface water.

Over the past year, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in effluent treatment have gained significant attention due to industrialization and suburbanization. Industrialization has directly affected the ecosystem as well as the aquatic system. Clean water is a prime natural resource available that is becoming significantly depleted. With quick improvement of the study of nanotechnology, the utilization of nanomaterials in native applications, particularly wastewater treatment, has pulled in established researchers in recent years. Nanoparticles have exceptional properties, for example, the surface-to-volume proportion, quantum impact, energy with low bandgap, and so forth, which give additional highlights in catalyst execution. This chapter provides a concise presentation of various AOPs with or without the use of nanomaterials and their applications in the degradation of unmanageable natural contaminants. Also, this chapter endeavors to underline the importance of catalytic activity in degradation reaction within sight of transient metal particles and use of another oxidant such as H2O2, ozone, etc. Furthermore, we have additionally discussed intensifying the process utilizing ultrasound- or UV-assisted hybrid AOPs (i.e., sonophotocatalysis, Fenton-type reaction) for degradation of the recalcitrant pollutants from wastewater.

Diarrhea remains one of the serious threats to global health. Developing countries are the most stricken as they continue to struggle with the economic burden associated with accessing quality health care as well as access to clean water and sanitation. The situation is even made worse in the military. All the same, medicinal plants that are abundant in developing countries avail vivid alternatives to the management of diarrheal diseases. Rich in phytochemicals that are active in the management of diarrhea at different phases, medicinal plants offer a cheaper and more accessible form of therapy. Exploration of the different methods of preparation, elucidation of structures of active molecules together with their mechanism of action, guarantees their potentials as remedies for the troops, refugees, and persons in areas of conflicts.

Polymeric nano-architectures are needed to address many of the critical challenges that we face today in areas such as energy, sustainability, clean water, health care, biotechnology, informatics, defence and security. Tree exudate gums are used in a multitude of applications, especially in the food industry but there are also numerous non-food applications such as biosynthesis and stabilization of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, production of electrospun fibres, environmental bioremediation, biocatalysis, biosensors, and coordination complexes of metal–hydrogels, and for antimicrobial and biomedical applications. The present chapter reports an ecofriendly, facile synthetic route, biodegradable fibres, and nanoparticles prepared from the combination of tree gums with natural/synthetic materials. The major influencing factors such as biosynthesis protocol, conditions including pH, solvent, temperature, and their effect on physicochemical, structural, mechanical, thermal, and biodegradation of the composite fibres, and nanoparticles are briefly discussed. The developed tree gum-based biogenic nanoparticles, fibres, composites, and films are shown suitable for practical food packaging, energy harvesting, environmental, and biomedical applications.

Wastewater treatment has gained increased importance worldwide due to the increasing demand for clean water. Biological treatment achieved by the activities of the microbial community is one of the most widely used processes in the treatment of wastewater. Consequently, wastewater treatment facilities have been created to maintain high densities and activities of those microorganisms that satisfy the various purification demands. The diversity and interaction of microbes present in the complex environment of wastewater treatment reactors are studied using molecular techniques. In this chapter, we discussed the current and emerging molecular approaches for characterizing microbial community composition and structure in wastewater processes. Both denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) have been extensively employed methods. The formation, quantification, and distribution of different microbial groups in granules and biofilms, as well as their structure and architecture, are demonstrated by FISH technique. For identifying the microorganisms, polymerase chain reaction-based methods (cloning and DGGE) are used that form the sludge in the reactor.

With the emerging global socioeconomic and environmental apprehensions appear the significance of “sustainability science” in terms of a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach toward addressing major present-day concerns. The United Nation’s 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) under Agenda 2030 are an attempt to promote and ensure such holistic advancements. Soil, as a central component of the environment, is connected directly or indirectly to a number of SDGs. For instance, soil health and functions have substantial implications in SDG 2 (Zero hunger), SDG 3 (Good health and well-being for people), SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation), SDG 11 (Sustainable cities and communities), SDG 14 (Life below water), and SDG 15 (Life on land). In this chapter, we attempt to explore the attributes of each of these SDG in connection with the soil and how soil sustainability could influence or aid in achieving sustainable development. We argue that soil conservation is one of the most vital and essential ways toward realizing the objectives of SDGs both effectively and adequately.

Few things in life are as important as access to clean water. The evolution from access to water through individual wells to centralized treatment and distribution systems opened the door for the growth of suburbs, the improved management of water resources, and the protection of public health. With such an important role in the community they serve, water utilities must be prepared for the risks it may face. Understanding how a water system has evolved over time, the components critical to delivery, and the management policies in place all contribute to understanding and expanding its resilience. This chapter examines how the Onondaga County Water Authority grew to the system it is today and how resilience became an important component of its day-to-day management.

Existing conventional wastewater and water treatment plants are under critical stress due to the growing request and misuse of clean water along with the contamination of natural water resources. The efficiency and performance of conventional processes employed in wastewater and water treatment are affected because of several obstacles. This chapter deals with hybrid/integrated processes employed in wastewater and water treatment. Previous investigations approved that such processes can enhance water quality, increase the efficiency of separation, and decrease energy consumption. This suggests that these technologies have a high potential application in industries and may solve many of the existing problems in wastewater and water treatment plants.

Currently, accessibility of clean water is one of the biggest challenges faced by international society. The emerging field of nanotechnology and its applications has great potential for providing sustainable solutions to this vital problem. Nanomaterials have numerous significant physicochemical properties that may allow them to serve as an interesting and novel separation media for water treatment. Most importantly, nanoparticles have larger surface areas than bulk particles and are easy to functionalize. These two qualities make nanoparticles as great building blocks for sorbents material allowing them to be easily manipulated in order to enhance adsorption affinity and selectivity. Nanotechnology can be used to obtain highly efficient and reusable ligands for cations, anions, radionuclides, and organic compounds. The present study highlights the different types of nanotechnologies intended for the treatment of water and wastewater and their potential benefits when compared with conventional solutions for water decontamination.

Population growth and unsustainable agricultural and industrial activities have led to a decrease in water quality and availability, causing ecological risks and challenging drinking water treatment plants to provide clean water. Many techniques are available for monitoring known water contaminants, but they are typically expensive and cumbersome requiring trained scientists or technicians to use them correctly. Biosensors provide the opportunity for simple to use, disposable or continuous tests, for monitoring many of the common contaminants and emerging contaminants that water-quality personnel are facing today. This chapter discusses the changing profile of water pollution and sources of regulated and emerging contaminants. A detailed discussion is provided on the monitoring of arsenic in groundwater and the current field-monitoring approaches. An introduction to biosensors is provided along with a discussion on arsenic biosensors that are developed for field applications. Finally, the future of biosensors for emerging contaminants is discussed.

Rapid population growth increases the demand for freshwater. Membrane technology is playing a dynamic role in the production of clean water from seawater and wastewater. The desalination of seawater using forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging technology to produce freshwater, as it is energy efficient than the conventional processes. In recent days, a significant amount of work has been carried out to produce high-performance FO membrane for desalination. In this chapter, usage of different types of membranes for FO desalination application and their performances enhancement by suitable modification has been discussed.

Clean water (i.e., water that is free of toxic chemicals and pathogens) is essential to human health. As the available supplies of freshwater are decreasing due to competing demands from various users, population growth, more stringent health-based regulations, and extended droughts, we are facing a formidable challenge of meeting rising demands for clean water. In recent years, semiconductor photocatalysis has emerged as a potential alternative for purification of wastewaters because it is able to disinfect water and completely mineralize organic pollutants to CO2 and H2O. To efficiently use photocatalysis for water treatment, reactor systems have to be designed and tested on simulated wastewaters as well as real-world applications.

This study explores the validity of chain effects of clean water, which are known as the "Mills-Reincke phenomenon," in early 20-century Japan. Recent studies have reported that water purifications systems are responsible for huge contributions to human capital. Although some studies have investigated the instantaneous effects of water-supply systems in pre-war Japan, little is known about the chain effects of these systems. By analyzing city-level cause-specific mortality data from 1922 to 1940, we find that a decline in typhoid deaths by one per 1000 people decreased the risk of death due to non-waterborne diseases such as tuberculosis and pneumonia by 0.742-2.942 per 1000 people. Our finding suggests that the observed Mills-Reincke phenomenon could have resulted in the relatively rapid decline in the mortality rate in early 20-century Japan.

Water is essential to life; therefore, providing access to safe and clean water is a major concern for health development at the local, national, and regional levels. Enhancing water quality by improving sanitation systems needs a profound understanding of water chemistry and microbiology. This chapter will give an overview of water chemistry and microbiology. The chapter will be divided into two main parts: the first one will discuss water chemistry in terms of its physical properties and the main chemical processes that takes place within water bodies, the main parameters that govern the water quality, and water quality management. This section will finally mark out the basics of water treatment processes. The second part will be devoted to water microbiology where the main concepts that are encountered when discussing water microbiology will be outlined. An overview will be given of the different types of microorganisms and their classification as well as the main processes they carry out in living cell such as metabolism, respiration, and microbial growth. A brief synopsis will be depicted about the main diseases caused by microorganisms that could be present in water bodies, the main microbial indicator, as well as the main analytical tests for microbial indicators. This section will also give a short overview about microbial control and the terms related to it such as disinfection. The final part of this section will delineate the role of microorganisms in wastewater treatment plants.

This chapter is an introduction to the engineering science of dirty water flow and quality characterization and quantification of treatment objectives for various end uses.

Geology deals with the Earth and its processes. It is an ancient, continually evolving, complex and diverse profession. It provides civilisation with raw materials, finite and renewable energy and clean water resources, and stewards the environment through sustainable waste disposal, geohazard monitoring, and geoheritage. It has adopted the professional qualification/assurance system, based on academic training, professional experience, a code of ethics, and continuing professional development. This is the basis for the movement, recognition and accountability of professional geologists around the world.

Along with the implementation of clean water and sanitation, vaccines have contributed significantly to global disease reduction and eradication, saving millions of lives. Originating in the 19th century, vaccine development has advanced significantly. Understanding the immune system and how invading pathogens stimulate it has led to many new vaccines, vaccine classes, and ways in which protection can be achieved. In this chapter, we will review the history and development of vaccines and their different subclasses as well as more recent technological advances in vaccine development. Separately, we will review novel vaccine strategies and preferred immunization routes used for vaccines.

Water is an essential but overlooked nutrient in the human diet. While many technologies have been developed for water purification, emergence of nanotechnology in the field can reduce cost and also increase efficiency of the purification processes. Furthermore, nanotechnology can allow developing countries to utilize such water purification systems, increasing the availability of clean water. This chapter provides an in-depth review of the current technologies and emerging applications of nanotechnology in drinking water purification. Common drinking water contaminants, such as inorganic heavy metals, organics, and microorganisms will be introduced along with the current strategies for their removal. Most of the chapter will be devoted to discuss the applications of nanotechnology in the areas of adsorption and membrane separation, particularly with respect to how nanotechnology and engineered nanomaterials are applied to improve the efficiency as well as to reduce the cost and environmental footprint of the conventional water purification methods.

This chapter addresses issues of social sustainability in the coffee industry. Using seven of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, the chapter frames a discussion around what contributes to poverty among coffee farmers, what other social ailments intersect with poverty and what initiatives exist to address them. The authors illustrate the interrelatedness of issues, the obstacles facing farmers, and what avenues for solutions already exist and might yet come to be. Sustainable Development Goals addressed are: ending poverty, ending hunger, ensuring healthy lives, providing education, gender, water and decent work for all. In three poignant industry stories, the authors illustrate how coffee provides hope for a better future.

This chapter addresses aspects of fresh clean water from a variety of perspectives: economic, geographic, and technological (production). Types of water filters are discussed, along with the materials from which they are made. In-depth details of reverse osmosis systems, including plant layouts, are presented. The chapter concludes with a section on future trends.

Fouling models rely on knowledge of foulant accumulation and removal mechanisms. In this study, a fouling visualization apparatus is developed to elucidate centimeter-scale mechanisms of organic fouling and cleaning in reverse osmosis (RO) and forward osmosis (FO). Alginate is used as a model organic foulant and dyed with methylene blue, which is shown not to affect fouling or cleaning, and to sufficiently highlight the gel for visualization at low salinity (up to 1% NaCl). When cleaning by increasing the cross-flow velocity, with or without reverse permeation, foulant peels off the membrane in discrete pieces in both RO and FO. Videos of cleaning show that foulant cake swelling and wrinkling can facilitate gel detachment and removal. Despite their effectiveness in slowing fouling, spacers can hinder removal of detached foulant pieces by obstructing their path. Finally, photographs point to a new mechanism of internal fouling in FO: vapor formation due to sub-atmospheric pressure within the membrane. Awareness of these mechanisms allows for better modeling of fouling and motivates optimization of swelling-inducing cleaning procedures., Center for Clean Water and Clean Energy at MIT and KFUPM M (Project #R4-CW- 11), Martin Family Society of Fellows for Sustainability (Martin Fellowship for Sustainability)

One of the biggest operational risks to water companies arises from their ability to control the day-to-day management and optimisation of their water treatment systems. With emerging pressures to remain competitive within national and global markets, companies are looking for solutions to be able to make predictions on how their chosen treatment processes can be improved. The objective of this work is to develop a detailed mathematical modelling methodology of a conventional clean water treatment plant which includes detailed models of each of the key processing unit operations. The methodology is first validated by individual unit examples based on experimental data from literature, before the operation of a complete water treatment plant is considered.

Millions of people in rural South Asia are exposed to high levels of naturally occurring arsenic through groundwater used for drinking. Many arsenic remediation technologies and other safe water strategies have been deployed, but quickly failed because they were not maintained, repaired, accepted, or affordable. In this chapter, we review the development to date of electrochemical arsenic remediation (ECAR) and demonstrate its promise to cornerstone a comprehensive sustainable and scalable safe water solution for rural communities in South Asia, directly addressing the causes of previous arsenic remediation failures. Specifically, we present results from experiments in synthetic groundwater, field trials in West Bengal, waste sludge stabilization in concrete, development of a predictive chemical dynamic model of ECAR performance, and preliminary studies of Escherichia coli and MS2 virus removal using ECAR. These results suggest that ECAR is a promising technology with the potential to provide a sustainable, scalable, and comprehensive clean water solution in arsenic-affected areas of South Asia.

Publisher Summary The maintenance of concrete is the answer to reducing expenses associated with concrete repairs. Prevention is the best medicine. As obvious as this should be, it is too often ignored. Routine maintenance can prevent, or at least postpone, the need for costly and time-consuming rehabilitation and repairs. Stains on concrete can be a sign of trouble. They can penetrate the concrete if it is porous and absorbent. Stain removal can be accomplished with various methods. Brushing and washing is a common option for simple stains. The cleaning details for concrete depend on the type of stains being cleaned. Old oil stains require a different method of attack. A mixture of equal parts of acetone and amyl acetate will be needed. This is mixed with some material, like flannel, to be laid over the stain. Dirt is normally pretty simple to remove from a concrete surface. Clean water is often all that is required. Soap and water may be needed in some cases.

Environmental remediation issues, although being essential, are partially and incompletely solved by conventional technologies. Critical points include ensuring access to clean water, removing air pollutants and cleaning up industrial- or military-contaminated soils, among others. A series of laboratory demonstrations have shown how nanoparticles (NPs) are efficient in carrying out these works. However, a deeper understanding of the processes at the molecular level and the transfer to the larger scales of real application are still needed. Exploiting material properties at the nanoscale for environmental remediation, apart from contributing to the benefits of living in a cleaner world, has the potential to promote economic growth and innovation, while allowing a sustainable development of nanotechnologies. Of course, benefits obtained have to be balanced with the potential risks of introducing large amounts of NPs in the environment. Whether the unknown risks of engineered NPs, which are currently an established field of research called nanotoxicology, outweigh their benefits for the society is a question still being solved. In this chapter, properties that make NPs appealing for environmental remediation, safety aspects and potential-associated toxicity are described. Moreover, some model cases of environmental applications using inorganic NPs are shown.

Diarrheal diseases kill 1.6 million children annually, and a key cause is unsafe drinking water. The limited existing evidence from randomized evaluations suggests that consumers are willing to pay for increased quantity and convenience of water, but does not yet demonstrate that increasing quantity without improving quality improves health. On the other hand, multiple randomized evaluations suggest that many consumers have low willingness to pay for investments in water quality, such as chlorination, but these can improve health very cost effectively. Salient information on the quality of existing sources, personal contact with promoters, public messages, and convenience can all modestly boost the demand for water quality. A free chlorine dispenser placed conveniently and saliently next to an existing water source, and with a local promoter generates takeup of more than 60% compared to less than 10% under existing retail distribution models at an estimated cost of less than $20 per disability adjusted life years (DALY). Randomized impact evaluations have also generated a number of methodological insights: they have demonstrated the importance of survey effects (as well as ways to limit that impact); helped generate revealed preference measures of clean water valuation; and allowed experimental estimation of parameters needed for structural policy simulations.

Direct Contact Membrane Distillation is a new process with exciting opportunities for use in desalination. With 60% of the world's population expected to be experiencing severe water shortages by 2025, and unhealthy water estimated to be responsible for 90% of all disease in developing countries, the production of clean, affordable water is becoming increasingly important in order to sustain life on Earth. In this work, a mathematical model of membrane distillation was developed, taking account of all aspects of the process, more so than anything previously published. Its use can enable membrane distillation to fulfill its potential, and provide clean water worldwide.

Publisher Summary This chapter provides an overview of the biology and medical care of rabbits. There are about 50 different breeds of domestic rabbits. Rabbits have very thin and delicate skin that is covered with fine fur comprised of both a soft undercoat and stiff guard hairs. Care must be taken when clipping fur because the skin is prone to tearing. A rabbit enclosure should be large enough to provide a sleeping space, eating space, and latrine. Animals housed for long periods of time should also have ample room to exercise. The enclosure should be tall enough to allow the rabbit to sit up and not have its ears touch the top of the cage. Because rabbits are prone to heatstroke, they should be housed in temperatures ranging from 60°F to 75°F. If rabbits are housed outdoors, they must have access to shade and clean water, and the shelter should protect them from the elements as well as from predators. The ideal substrate for rabbits is grass hay; however, for indoor, caged rabbits, a foam rubber pad or a towel covered with newspaper and a thick layer of timothy hay can also be used.

Publisher Summary Next to the availability of clean water, the development of vaccines has had the most dramatic impact on global health. The eradication of smallpox and the targeting of poliomyelitis for eradication are two excellent examples of the success of vaccinology as a science. The need to further develop vaccines against diseases such as malaria, HIV, hepatitis C virus (HCV), and even cancer is driving the discovery of novel antigens, most of which require adjuvants or delivery vehicles for efficient immunopotentiation. As such, modern vaccines incorporating these new technologies and formulations must face and overcome particular scientific and regulatory hurdles. This chapter reviews one of the most dynamic and successful modern vaccine concepts immunopotentiating reconstituted influenza virosomes (IRIVs). A brief overview of the background behind the IRIV concept; the IRIV mechanism of action; and applications of the IRIV technology is also presented.

Contingent valuation (CV) is a survey-based approach to putting an economic value on goods that are not ordinarily bought and sold in the marketplace. It is frequently used in benefit–cost analyses of environmental amenities ranging from clean water and wildness areas to health risks and outdoor recreation. CV is generally the only technique available for measuring what has been termed existence or passive use values. Passive use values can be present if the person does not use or visit the environmental amenity. There has been a large ongoing debate with respect to the use of CV. Some of these issues are technical and are related to microeconomic theory and survey design considerations. On these issues there has been considerable progress and a wide range of empirical tests have been conducted. Other issues are more philosophical in nature and often reflect the large difference that inclusion of passive use values can make in a benefit–cost or damage assessment.

Publisher Summary Environmental protection is an important subject that requires immediate attention if humankind is to continue and flourish. Polymeric materials (called polymeric flocking agents), which function by gelation in a broad sense because they are not actually gels, are used in preserving the environment. These polymeric flocking agents are water-soluble polymers used to clean water and treat waste. They are indispensable in our society for lake clean-up, as well as of industrial waste, sewage disposal, and in other areas. The chapter reviews polymeric flocking agents with respect to types and structures, functional mechanisms, and actual application examples. Polymeric flocking agents facilitate the separation of liquids from solids in a suspension by using flocking behavior. Polymeric flocking agents can be classified as nonionic, anionic, cationic, and amphoteric. The discussion of cationic polymers is based on the polymerization reaction type. The chapter also discusses the application of flocking agents.

Because of PVC's combination of versatile performance and low price, PVC will continue to grow at about 7% ± 3% for the decade. The variability results from new production capacity relative to world economies. The areas of highest growth are in global construction activities and export to developing nations for all applications. There have been, and continue to be, a number of environmental challenges that have been irritating to outright menacing of particular PVC markets. This chapter attempts to highlight these drivers and barriers to PVC markets. In the emerging economies, there are opportunities of infrastructure development that are favorable for PVC. For delivery of clean water systems, there is high demand for PVC pipe. Similarly, much PVC is used for sewage treatment, transport, and general sanitation improvement. Inexpensive PVC modular housing is gaining popularity. The increased use of PVC prevents, or significantly reduces, deforestation and subsequent soil loss. The use of PVC for basic irrigation, without overuse of water, is an established practice. The point is that for both domestic and overseas construction applications, there will continue to be high demand for PVC.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the egg laying behavior of Lymnaea, which is initiated by the discharge of the neurosecretory caudodorsal cells (CDCs). These cells are electronically coupled and have their somata in the cerebral ganglia. The egg laying behavior of Lymnaea is observed under five different conditions: (1) spontaneous egg laying of unoperated animals, (2) induced egg laying after clean water stimulus, (3) spontaneous egg laying of animals where the CDCs are monitored using fine wire electrodes, (4) egg laying elicited by electrical stimulation of the CDCs through fine wire electrodes, and (5) induced egg laying following the injection of purified and synthetic CDCH. The neuroendocrine system controlling egg laying behavior in Lymnaea is similar to systems controlling the reproductive behavior of a wide range of animals. Egg laying behavior involves both the neuroendocrine system and a number of motor routines borrowed from other behaviors, including locomotion, feeding, and shell twisting. These routines are clearly modified during egg laying behavior, and this raises the question of how these motor routines are reorganized depending on the behavior in which they occur.

“…clean air or clean water, increased crop yields, improved health, longer life of people and longer lasting materials are among the results of the investment (in pollution control equipment).”

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses applications of metals on a model traction engine and drinking cans. The most notable part of the traction engine made from copper is the boiler and its fire tubes. In full size, this would have been made from mild steel, and the use of copper in the model is a nice example of how the choice of material can depend on the scale of the structure. The boiler plates of the full-size engine are about 10 mm thick of which perhaps only 6 mm is needed to stand the load from the pressurized steam safely, the other 4 mm is an allowance for corrosion. It is found that although a model steel boiler would stand the pressure with plates only 1 mm thick, it would still need the same corrosion allowance of 4 mm, totaling 5 mm altogether. It is observed that as copper hardly corrodes in clean water, this is the obvious material to use. It is found that although weaker than steel, copper plates 2.5 mm thick are strong enough to resist the working pressure and there is no need for a separate corrosion allowance.

Publisher Summary The earliest detailed description of faecal pellets in any species of the Bivalvia was given by Dodgson for Mytilus edulis L. and the accepted term, “pseudo-faeces” originated with him. The faecal pellets of bivalves were easily collected by keeping freshly caught animals in glass vessels containing clean water for a few hours. The first shed pellets were picked out as typical. Each animal was usually kept in a separate vessel to prevent confusion of samples and to ascertain the effect of possible individual variation. Careful handling makes it possible to extract nearly complete pellets from the rectum of the dead and preserved animals with the aid of a needle under a dissecting binocular. For the transport of very delicate pellets, such as those of Mytilus, they should be set in gelatine.