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Learning is described as a universal attribute of animals that is accompanied by diverse changes in the nervous system. On the brain level, memory is seen as being represented in distributed neural networks. On the behavioral level, memory is seen as divided along a time- and a content-based axis (short-term, working, long-term memory; procedural memory, priming, perceptual and semantic memory (knowledge system), and episodic-autobiographical memory). Neurological and psychiatric disease conditions can be used to determine brain regions that act as bottleneck structures in information processing.