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Summary: The relationships between atmospheric circulation patterns and water surface temperature along the coast of the southern Baltic Sea were studied. Seasonal water temperature values for Świnoujście, Międzyzdroje, Kołobrzeg, Władysławowo, Hel and Gdynia stations measured during the period of 1951–2010 were used. The methods of correlation and regression were applied to determine the relationships between water temperature and the number of days of atmospheric circulation patterns.It was demonstrated that the strongest relationships occur in winter, chiefly on account of intense atmospheric circulation activity and weaker effects of solar radiation. The relationships with western circulation are slightly stronger than that associated with the eastern circulation. During the remaining seasons, those dependencies are clearly weaker. Asynchronous relationships between water temperature and atmospheric circulation are less pronounced than the synchronous ones. Despite being weaker, the asynchronous relations are still statistically significant, mainly in the spring season and as such, they may have a prognostic significance. Keywords: Circulation patterns, Water temperature, Correlation, Regression, Relationship, Coastal zone

Crop residue burning (CRB) over northern India is a major air quality and human health issue. The present study assesses the impact of PM10, PM2.5, NO2 and SO2, emitted during CRB activities in Haryana on the air quality of Delhi. The transition from pre-burning to burning period, in both rabi and kharif seasons, shows considerable increase in pollutant concentrations. PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations exceeded NAAQS limits by 2–3 times, while NO2 and SO2 stayed within the limits. MODIS fire observations used to estimate CRB fire counts (confidence ≥80%) shows that rabi (burning period) fires in Haryana are ~3 times higher and more intense than in kharif. Furthermore, backward trajectories shows air mass movement from Haryana, Punjab and Pakistan. Thus, pollutants emitted reach Delhi via air masses, deteriorating its air quality. Meteorological conditions influence pollutant concentrations during both seasons. Frequent dust storms in rabi, and Dusshera and Diwali firework celebrations in kharif season exacerbate air pollution. In rabi, PM10 and PM2.5 have a significant negative association with (relative humidity) RH and positive association with (air temperature) AT. High AT during pre-monsoon, accompanied by low RH, loosens up soil particles and they can easily disperse. Stronger winds in rabi season promote NO2 and SO2 dispersion. In kharif, lower AT, higher RH and slower winds exist. Both PM10 and PM2.5 have a negative association with AT and (wind speed) WS. With lower temperature and slower winds during winter, pollutants are trapped within the boundary layer and are unable to disperse. As expected, NO2 has a significant negative association with AT in Haryana. However, in case of Delhi, the association is significant but positive, and could be due to the odd-even scheme imposed by the Delhi government. More research is needed to determine the health effects of Haryana's rabi CRB activities on Delhi., Biomass burning; Air mass movement; Rabi; Kharif; Meteorology.

Alkenes and aromatics significantly contribute to the photochemical reactions in the Kanto Region, where the level of ozone frequently exceeds the level for photochemical smog warnings in summer. The major aromatic sources have been cataloged in the Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) database in Japan; however, the major alkene sources are not included. We investigated the hourly variations in the volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations at four sampling sites in the Tokyo Bay coastal area, which has a variety of VOC sources, including the petrochemical industry, chemical facilities, iron–steel plants, and refineries. The 116-component VOC data were used to conduct a positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis to apportion the VOC sources; then, the source regions were estimated by combining the concentration ratios of the factors with the wind direction data. We used the hourly VOC data for the PMF analysis because alkenes are short-lived. Six factors were estimated using the PMF method and identified as liquefied petroleum gas + industry, aged air mass, fuel evaporation, petrochemical industry, aromatics, and solvent usage. The mean contribution ratios of these six factors were 8.9%, 19.9%, 9.3%, 10.4%, 9.9%, and 14.0%, respectively, whereas the mean contribution ratio of the residual was 27.7%. By combining the alkene concentration and factor contribution ratios with the wind direction, the petrochemical industry in the Kawasaki coastal area was demonstrated to be the main alkene source. In addition, the petrochemical industry makes the largest contribution to ozone production according to the OH radical loss rates of the six factors.

We assessed 2005─2018 data series of NO, NO2, and O3 surface measurements, meteorological data and remote sensing of tropospheric NO2 by OMI-NASA in the Guadalquivir Valley (GV, Andalucía). The GV is one of the Spanish atmospheric basins with the most exceedances of the EU's hourly O3 information threshold (180 μg O3 m−3). We aimed to deepen understanding of the phenomenology of O3 episodes in the GV, quantify local and regional contributions from long-range transported O3, and identify key episodes and atmospheric parameters to validate modeling tools for the assessment of O3 abatement policies with acceptable uncertainty levels. A significant proportion of acute O3 episodes (defined as episodes of 1–7 consecutive days, when very high hourly O3 concentrations are recorded) in the GV is caused by long-range transported contributions in addition to the regional accumulation of pollution which is, in most cases, driven by the vertical recirculation of air masses, as described in several basins of the Iberian Peninsula. In these episodes, high O3 arises from the fumigation of high reserve recirculated strata as the boundary layer grows, sea-breeze transport of O3 and precursors, local formation, and long-range transport. The most acute episodes are recorded close to Sevilla, probably because of the mix of precursors from the urban areas and the petrochemical industry of Huelva. We quantified the average O3 contributions to O3 concentrations in Sevilla during these episodes as 53% background levels before the episode (defined as the concentration measured at the coastal remote sites at the beginning of the pollution episode, when the Atlantic air masses transport background O3 from synoptic air mass transport), 22% accumulation throughout the episode, and 25% of daily local and regional contribution to the average 8h-daily maxima (157 μg O3 m−3). Thus, a maximum decreasing potential of 74 μg O3 m−3 (47%) of the average 8h-daily maxima can be expected when applying abatement measures to reduce O3 precursors in the day before the start of an episode and until the end of the episode. Our results demonstrate that it is crucial to meteorologically forecast the occurrence of such recirculation and accumulation processes in the GV basin., The present work was supported by the Spanish Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (17CAES010); by the “Agencia Estatal de Investigación” from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación and FEDER under the projects HOUSE (CGL2016-78594-R) and CAIAC (PID2019-108990RB-I00); and by the Generalitat de Catalunya, Agència de Gestió d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (AGAUR 2017 SGR41). We would like to thank the Junta de Andalucía for providing us with air quality data, and the Spanish Meteorological Office (AEMET) for providing meteorological data, as well as to NASA for providing OMI-NO2 data.

This study reports the characterization of optical properties of Arctic aerosol and surface snow collected at Ny-Alesund, Svalbard during the polar summer. Methanol-soluble brown carbon (BrC) extracts showed higher absorption coefficients at 300 nm compared to water-soluble BrC and also exhibited a tail of absorption toward higher wavelengths due to the presence of polyconjugated and/or nitroaromatic systems. Fluorescence spectra for water extract for air and snow samples showed peaks at ~340 nm indicating the presence of protein-like fluorophores, possibly from sea-to-air emission of marine organics and secondary formation of aerosols. Air mass back trajectories also suggested the potential contribution of forest fires from Alaska and Russia to BrC aerosol in the Arctic.

Transport of Alternaria spores from both local agricultural and remote areas has been implicated as a source of these spores in urban areas. The purpose of this study was to understand the relative contribution of local sources versus long distance transport on Alternaria spore concentrations, with applicability to Alternaria and other spore sampling sites worldwide. This was achieved by comparing two spore sampling sites in the cities of Worcester and Leicester in the UK, ~90 km apart, over a three year period (2016-2018) and focusing on a period of time when both sites experienced high spore counts. The study found 61 and 151 days of clinical significance (>100 spores/m3 air) at Worcester and Leicester, respectively. The spore concentrations were considerably higher in Leicester than in Worcester. Analysis of the crop map showed higher amounts of winter barley and oilseed rape near to Leicester compared to Worcester. HYSPLIT modelling during the episode revealed that the air masses arrived at both Leicester and Worcester from Ireland and the Atlantic Ocean. Long distance transport probably had a small but equal contribution to the observations at both sites. HYSPLIT particle dispersion simulations showed that the spores were dispersed and deposited from local sources. The results indicate that substantially higher concentrations of Alternaria spores occur in areas with high amounts of cereals and oilseed rape compared to those with lower amounts, or with different crops.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous and semivolatile pollutants associated with emissions from both natural and anthropogenic sources. For decades, the atmosphere has been considered an efficient vehicle for pollutants transport around the world. In order to assess the atmospheric occurrence of PAHs across a transect in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, air samples were collected aboard the oceanographic vessel ARA Puerto Deseado (CONICET), during two consecutive research campaigns in October–November 2014. Total PAHs were dominated by gas phase levels of Phenantrene, Dibenzothiophene, Fluorene, Fluoranthene and Pyrene in a concentration range of 57–5778 pg m−3. Characteristic diagnostic ratios of some PAHs were estimated in order to assess their possible emission sources showing important contribution from petrogenic and pyrogenic origin. Additionally, air mass back trajectory calculation revealed a marked influence of air with oceanic origin, being the contribution from the South American continent scarce. PAHs levels showed a decreasing trend from the coast towards open ocean, with exception of those sites that showed continental air masses influence. Fil: Pegoraro, César Nicolás. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Química; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Quiroga, Susana Leonor. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Química; Argentina Fil: Montejano, Hernan Alfredo. Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Fisicoquímicas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigaciones en Tecnologías Energéticas y Materiales Avanzados. - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto de Investigaciones en Tecnologías Energéticas y Materiales Avanzados; Argentina Fil: Rimondino, Guido Noé. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto de Investigaciones en Físico-química de Córdoba. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Químicas. Instituto de Investigaciones en Físico-química de Córdoba; Argentina Fil: Argüello, Gustavo Alejandro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto de Investigaciones en Físico-química de Córdoba. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Químicas. Instituto de Investigaciones en Físico-química de Córdoba; Argentina Fil: Chiappero, Malisa Susana. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Química; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina

This study evaluated the impact of the largest point source of particulate matter ≤2.5 μm (PM2.5) in South Korea (the coal-fired power plant) on the air quality in the southeastern region based on the transient reduction (30% less than the previous month) in coal consumption by the power plant. The impacts of the power plant during the period of coal consumption reduction were assessed based on an in-depth analysis of the forward air mass trajectory, such as the effects of meteorological parameter changes (temperature and relative humidity) on aerosol chemistry and long-range transport, and changes in anthropogenic emissions from May through June 2017. The study determined that the emission reduction from the coal-fired power plant resulted in a significant decrease in the local and regional concentrations of PM2.5, as well as the major inorganic components. The effects of the coal-fired power plant on the air quality downwind were different between local and regional areas, with a higher impact in the regional area due to the significant secondary aerosol formation. Keywords: Power plant, PM2.5, SO2, NOX, Inorganic ions, Air mass trajectory

Accepted: 2018-04-09, 資料番号: SA1180010000

Fil: Adame, José Antonio. Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial; España Fil: Cupeiro, Manuel. Servicio Meteorológico Nacional; Argentina Fil: Yela, Margarita. Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial; España Fil: Cuevas, Emilio. Agencia Estatal de Metorología; España Fil: Carbajal, Gerardo. Servicio Meteorológico Nacional; Argentina Fil: Carbajal, Gerardo. Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina. Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias; Argentina Abstract: Five years (2010-2014) of hourly surface measurements of ozone (O3) and carbon monoxide (CO) at the GAW-WMO station in Ushuaia (Argentina) were analysed and characterised. A meteorological study of the region was carried out using in situ observations and meteorological fields from the ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast) global meteorological model. Atmospheric transport was investigated with the air mass trajectories computed with HYSPLIT (Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) model using ERA-Interim meteorological fields. Airflows primarily arise from the W-SW (South Pacific Ocean) which are associated with an almost permanent low pressure system. Collected winds from the South (Antarctic Peninsula and Weddell Sea), polar easterlies, occur less frequently. The hourly averages of O3 and CO were 20±7 ppb and 71±45 ppb, respectively, typical values in remote environments. A clear seasonal pattern was obtained for O3, with a monthly peak in winter of 25 ppb and minimum in summer of 12 ppb. Similar behaviour was found for CO, with 93 and 48 ppb maximum and minimum values, respectively. Both species show a weak daily cycle with an amplitude of 2-4 ppb for O3 and 13-20 ppb for CO. Peaks in O3 and CO in the cold season could be associated with low photochemical activity, fewer destructive processes and transport of these species from the South Pacific. O3 vertical behaviour was analysed using 139 O3 soundings at Ushuaia in the period studied. The seasonal patterns and levels of the O3 profiles from the surface up to 5 km are similar to measurements on surface and thus it can be assumed that the O3 measured on the surface could be representative of the low-mid troposphere. To investigate the spatial distribution of O3 and CO in this region and the spatial representativeness of the Ushuaia measurements, daily observations from the AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder) instrument on board the AQUA satellite were used. The results obtained show that the O3 levels in Ushuaia could be representative of a wide region in the Pacific South and that the CO levels are representative of a continental region around the observatory.

Number–size distributions of aerosol particles with diameters of 10–500 nm in the marine boundary layer were observed continually onboard the R/V Hakuho Maru over the equatorial and subtropical North Pacific and South Pacific during December 2011–March 2012. Number–size distributions over each area were parameterized using a sum of up to three lognormal functions. Bi-modal size distributions with peak diameters at 30–80 nm (Aitken mode) and 100–200 nm (accumulation mode) were observed frequently. Larger peak diameters of Aitken and accumulation modes were observed over the eastern equator, where 5-day backward trajectories showed that the air masses had derived from high-chlorophyll oceanic regions without precipitation. Smaller peak diameters and low concentrations were often observed over the North Pacific. The trajectories show that such air mass originated from oceanic regions with less chlorophyll, exhibiting high precipitation frequency. New particle formation (NPF) events have often been observed over the mid-latitude eastern South Pacific with a low condensation sink (CS) and some dimethyl sulfide, although none was observed over the equator, where CS was higher. The lesser CS condition at NPF events was mostly correlated with local precipitation or precipitation along the trajectories within 1 day. These results suggest that differences of the number–size distribution and occasions of NPF events among sea areas most closely accord with precipitation along the trajectories.

Due to the rapid industrialization of the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) region in China, heavy air pollution episodes have occurred frequently over the past five years which are of great concern due to their environmental and health impacts. To investigate the chemical characteristics of the highly polluted aerosols in this region, a sampling campaign had been conducted in Ningbo from 3 December 2012 to 27 June 2013, during which a month long high pollution episode had been captured. Daily average PM2.5 concentrations during high and low pollution periods were 111 μg m−3 and 53 μg m−3, respectively. The most polluted day was 8 January 2013 with a PM2.5 concentration up to 175 μg m− 3. To understand the origin of the highly polluted aerosols, meteorological conditions, air mass backward trajectories, distribution of fire spots in surrounding areas and various categories of aerosol pollutants were analyzed, including trace metals, inorganic species, PAHs and anhydrosugars. Total metal concentrations were 3.8 and 1.6 μg m−3 for the high and low pollution episodes, respectively, accounting for 3.4% and 3.1% of the total PM2.5 mass. Total concentrations of ionic species accounted for more than 50.0% of the PM2.5 by mass, with dominant ions (nitrate, sulfate, ammonium) accounting for over 42.0% of the PM2.5 mass concentrations in both periods. During the high pollution episode, enhanced Cd–Pb and biomarker (levoglucosan, mannosan) levels indicated the contributions from coal combustion, traffic and biomass burning to fine aerosol PM2.5. The average diagnostic ratio of Fla/(Fla + Pyr) was 0.54 in high pollution episode, which was intermediate between that for wood (> 0.50) and coal combustion (0.58). BaP/Bpe was 0.49 and 0.30 for the highly and lightly polluted aerosols respectively, associated with the significant non-traffic emissions (< 0.60). In addition, stagnant weather conditions during the high pollution period and long-range transport of air masses from heavy industries and biomass burning from northern China to Ningbo could be considered as the main factors for the formation of the aerosols during high pollution period.

On 20th March 1994 at 12Z two dry layers with high ozone mixing ratio were encountered in the free troposphere by an ozonesonde ascent at Aberystwyth (52.4°N, 4.1°W). The layers resembled tropopause folds, but were not associated with any significant synoptic development, and did not have enhanced static stability. We use isentropic trajectory analysis, with winds taken from ECMWF analyses, to look for the origin of the layers. The analysis suggests that the two layers had different source regions. The lower layer spent 10 days over the Atlantic before reaching Northern Europe, and appears to have originated in the break-up of a stratospheric streamer between the 5th and 9th of March. The upper layer seems to have originated over the Western USA where the trajectories passed through a region of low Richardson number above the Rocky Mountains. In both cases, the low-water-vapour/high-ozone air mass had been advected with little mixing in the troposphere for at least 10 days. We argue that the air must be of stratospheric origin, since photo-chemistry cannot generate large amounts of ozone at this time of year and the trajectories do not, in any case, point to a boundary-layer origin. If, as the analysis suggests, the upper layer reached the troposphere by mixing across the jet then this may be evidence for stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) taking place other than by folding of the tropopause. The persistence of layers with anomalous chemical content in the troposphere for so long indicates that an accurate model of tropospheric transport and mixing is needed to assess the chemical impact of STE on tropospheric chemistry, in addition to a representation of the dynamical behaviour near to the tropopause. Copyright (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.

This work presents 15-min averaged measurements of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) obtained during spring 2014 (24/04/2014 – 06/05/2014) at the Auchencorth UK EMEP supersite (southeast Scotland). The aim of this analysis was to investigate the conditions producing the distribution of PAN mixing ratios at the supersite in spring 2014. Air mass back trajectories showed the majority of air masses to have spent substantial time over the UK, continental Europe or Scandinavia prior to arrival at Auchencorth. The median and 95th percentile PAN mixing ratios observed were 0.46 ppb and 1.03 ppb, respectively. The median mixing ratio was elevated compared with previous PAN measurements during springtime (April–May) in southeast Scotland (corresponding median mixing ratios April–May 1994–1998: 0.1–0.3 ppb), which is hypothesised to be due to conditions conducive to regional (European) photochemical PAN production. Additionally, PAN mixing ratios during regionally influenced conditions (0.4–1.5 ppb) were substantially more elevated from hemispheric background mixing ratios (0.4–0.6 ppb) than for ozone (O3, regional: 10–45 ppb, hemispheric: 30–40 ppb). PAN and O3 both impact upon vegetation and human health and it is necessary to understand the extent to which hemispheric and regional processes contribute to their abundances in different locations. Regional processes can both increase and decrease PAN and O3 mixing ratios compared to imported hemispheric background mixing ratios. This study concludes that during the measurement period in spring 2014 at the Auchencorth supersite, regional PAN and O3 modifying processes enhanced PAN mixing ratios more than for O3.

Background: The importance of describing, understanding and regulating multi-pollutant mixtures has been highlighted by the US National Academy of Science and the Environmental Protection Agency. Furthering our understanding of the health effects associated with exposure to mixtures of pollutants will lead to the development of new multi-pollutant National Air Quality Standards. Objectives: Introduce a framework within which diagnostic methods that are based on our understanding of air pollution mixtures are used to validate the distinct air pollutant mixtures identified using cluster analysis. Methods: Six years of daily gaseous and particulate air pollution data collected in Boston, MA were classified solely on their concentration profiles. Classification was performed using k-means partitioning and hierarchical clustering. Diagnostic strategies were developed to identify the most optimal clustering. Results: The optimal solution used k-means analysis and contained five distinct groups of days. Pollutant concentrations and elemental ratios were computed in order to characterize the differences between clusters. Time-series regression confirmed that the groups differed in their chemical compositions. The mean values of meteorological parameters were estimated for each group and air mass origin between clusters was examined using back-trajectory analysis. This allowed us to link the distinct physico-chemical characteristics of each cluster to characteristic weather patterns and show that different clusters were associated with distinct air mass origins. Conclusions: This analysis yielded a solution that was robust to outlier points and interpretable based on chemical, physical and meteorological characteristics. This novel method provides an exciting tool with which to identify and further investigate multi-pollutant mixtures and link them directly to health effects studies. Keywords: Multipollutant mixtures, Cluster analysis, Effect modification, Air pollution profiles, k-Means, Hierarchical clustering

Spectra of the aerosol opticalthickness from the AERONETstation at Hornsund in 2005-2008 were employed to study the interseasonal and intraseasonal variability in aerosol optical thickness for λ=500 nm (AOT(500)) and the Ångström exponent in the southern part of Spitsbergen in spring and summer. The dependences of aerosol optical properties on long-range transport and local meteorological conditions, i.e.wind direction and speed and humidity, were analysed.Backward trajectories computed by means of NOAA HYSPLIT model (Draxler & Rolph 2003) were used to trace the air mass history.The mean values of AOT(500) for spring and summer were 0.110 ± 0.007 (mean and standard deviation of the mean) and 0.048 ± 0.003respectively. The average values of the Ångström exponent do not differ and take respective values of 1.44 ± 0.03and 1.45 ± 0.03. In both seasons, the highest AOT(500) cases (the highest 20% of AOT values) can be explained by long-rangetransport from Europe, Asia (spring and summer) and North America (summer). In summer, the impact of distant sourceson AOT is strongly modified by cleansing processes en route to Hornsund. Local meteorological conditions at the station areof secondary importance as regards the intraseasonal variability of aerosol optical properties in the southern part of Spitsbergen.

Traditionally, fronts have been defined as boundaries between air masses. Because this definition can be problematic in a modern context, a new definition is proposed. A front is a region characterized by frontogenesis containing both a horizontal potential temperature gradient and vorticity maximum. Fronts are classified as surface based or upper level. Surface-based fronts are further classified as those associated with synoptic-scale phenomena (cold, warm, stationary, or occluded) or those associated with mesoscale phenomena (sea breeze, gust, or drainage). Front-like features such as drylines also exist.

Nine organophosphate esters (OPEs) in airborne particles were measured during a cruise campaign over the northern South China Sea (SCS) from September to October 2013. The concentration of the total OPEs (∑OPEs) was 47.1-160.9 pg m(-3), which are lower than previous measurements in marine atmosphere environments. Higher OPE concentrations were observed in terrestrially influenced samples, suggesting that OPE concentrations were significantly influenced by air mass transport. Chlorinated OPEs were the dominant OPEs, accounting for 65.8-83.7% of the ∑OPEs. Tris-(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) was the predominant OPE compound in the samples (45.0±12.1%), followed by tris-(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphates (TCPPs) (28.8±8.9%). Dry particle-bound deposition fluxes ranged from 8.2 to 27.8 ng m(-2) d(-1) for the ∑OPEs. Moreover, the dry deposition input of the ∑OPEs was estimated to be 4.98 ton y(-1) in 2013 in a vast area of northern SCS. About half of the input was found to relate to air masses originating from China.

We explore the critical importance of meteorology to solar energy conversion systems, including the many facets of the sky. The study of the regional dynamics of air masses and accompanying fronts on a sub-annual basis is called meteorology. Air masses can be grouped according to similar physical characteristics and behaviors, and their source regions, and climate regimes are introduced to the reader as fingerprints for synoptic scale meteorology. The contrasting engineering use of the term “air mass” is also introduced in comparison. The concept of climate regimes is introduced. Energy balance models between the Earth and Sun are described for hypothetical cases where there is no atmosphere and various alternatives where the sky is considered as a uniform material cover that interacts with both shortwave and longwave bands. The chapter introduces the role of clouds and clear sky modeling to describe components of light.

Rainwater was collected at the Portuguese west coast between September 2008 and September 2009, and analysed for pH, conductivity, and Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, and NH4+ concentrations. Results of rainwater chemical composition were compared with those obtained at the same site between 1986 and 1989. In both collection periods rainwater was predominantly (≈ 80%) associated to oceanic air masses. The rainwater concentration of H+ was in the same range as twenty years ago. A clear decrease of non sea salt sulphate (NSS-SO42−) was observed in 2008–2009 relatively to 1986–1989, not only in samples with origin in central and northern Europe, but also in samples from Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean. This decrease indicates that SO2 emissions were reduced, which may be due to a lower content of sulphur in oil by-products. A decrease was also observed in NH4+ concentration in 2008–2009. On the contrary an increase of NO3− concentration was observed for samples of all origins in 2008–2009 relatively to 1986–1989, which was particularly high (more than 3 fold) for samples with origin in Atlantic Ocean, suggesting the incorporation of this ion by rainout at the sampling site. The contribution of local sources is indeed suggested by the moderate negative correlation of NH4+, NO3− and NSS-SO42− with rainwater volume. The high increase of NO3− concentration can be attributed to the increase of local vehicular and industrial emissions in the sampling area. Authors acknowledge funding from the Portuguese FCT (Foundation for Science and Technology) to CESAM (Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies). The FCT fellowship given to P.S.M. Santos (Ref. SFRH/BD/27379/2006) is also acknowledged. Authors would like to gratefully thank Prof. Eduardo Silva for making available a Dionex 2000i for ion chromatography and to Dr. Carla Patinha for her support in operating the Dionex 2000i. published

Publisher Summary Air pollutants can be considered in three contexts: pervasive, confined, and breathing zone. The sources of air pollutants include industrial as well as consumer use of chemicals. Pervasive air pollutants can be vapors, aerosols, or particulates. They primarily arise from industrial manufacturing, mining, agricultural activity, fires, and fossil-fuel combustion. Air pollution, however, can also be hazardous in more confined areas, such as those found in outdoor areas with limited air circulation, in buildings, in rooms, and in other tight indoor areas with limited circulation. An example of breathing zone air pollution is that experienced by pathologists and histology technicians in preparing and microscopically examining slides prepared containing formaldehyde, toluene, and xylene. Using the industrial air pollution reports that are reported to it by industry, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) calculates a health risk score for each square kilometer of the United States. The health risk or probability that exposure to that particular air mass will induce illness is defined as the hazard multiplied by the exposure. The toxicological effects of mixtures of air pollutants are not always ascribable to single chemicals. Air pollutant mixtures are often complex in phase as well as in diversity. Solid particles act as absorption sites for vapors, and liquids and aerosols act to introduce mixtures of different liquids.

The 16 US EPA priority-listed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined, in the border region between Belgium and France, by a fast analytical approach and minimum solvent consumption. Further, the levels of PAHs were evaluated with relation to the various emission sources, and for the first time, backward air mass trajectories were used to study the variation in PAHs levels due to local and regional/global activities.

The chemical composition of atmospheric aerosols from an environment subjected to air masses of multiple origins was investigated at a northern French in-shore site away from any direct urban influence. During a continuous 1-year campaign, particles were sampled weekly onto polycarbonate membranes. Twelve 1-week samples of distinct air-mass origins, according to computed backward trajectories, were characterized by scanning electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX). Approximately, 1000 particles per sample were automatically analyzed. Semi-quantitative analysis was carried out by applying Castaing's first approximation to characteristic X-ray intensities of 16 elements ( Z >8). A total of 11,842 particles were classified into five clusters, based upon similarities in composition, using a hierarchical clustering analysis. These clusters include: Na-rich (70%), referred to as marine particles, Ca–S-rich (17%), Al–Si-rich (8%), Fe-rich (4%) and Si-rich (1%), assigned to continental—including both natural and anthropogenic—sources. In this area, which is frequently subjected to meteorological depressions, the total particle number concentration is significantly correlated ( r 2 =0.97) with the number concentration of marine particles regardless of the global origin of the air mass (i.e. oceanic and/or continental). In the case of air masses originating predominantly from the continent, marine particles presumably come from an external mixing due to the convergence of separate air masses before the sampling site. Due to their key role in marine primary production and in global climate by radiative forcing, Fe-bearing particles have been intensively studied for the past two decades. Fe-containing particles were interpreted here as iron (oxy(hydr))oxides (55%) and aluminosilicates (34%). A statistical reanalysis of all Fe-bearing particles (including particles with low Fe contents, not initially tabulated in the distribution statistics) clearly discloses their large abundance in air masses transported over steel works.

Because of heavy traffic in urban area in Japanese mega cities, air pollution by NO 2 , SPM, etc., is still severe in near-major-roads’ environment. In this study, we propose to use the activated carbon fiber (ACF) in flow-through fence set at roadside as an energy-free NO x remover. Efficiency of NO x removal by the flow-through fences was numerically investigated, when a NO x -rich air mass driven by natural wind passes through the fence.

The Himalayan–Karakoram range is located in one of the most densely populated and very rapidly developing world areas. Monitoring of atmospheric composition in this area can play a relevant role in evaluating the background conditions of the free troposphere and quantifying the pollution present at high altitudes, as well as in studying regional and long-range transport phenomena. Due to technical and logistic difficulties in carrying out measurements at high altitude in the Himalaya, no systematic observations of atmospheric constituents are available for this area. Thus, a new measurement station in such a region represents a unique source of data, able to make up for the prior lack of this information. For these reasons, in the framework of the SHARE-Asia and ABC projects, a remote monitoring station, the ABC-Pyramid Laboratory, will be installed in the Khumbu valley near Mt. Everst at 5079 m a.s.l. Continuous in situ measurements of chemical, physical and optical properties of aerosol, surface ozone concentration, as well as non-continuous measurements of halocarbons and other greenhouse-gas concentrations will be carried out. This monitoring station was projected, realised and tested in Bologna at CNR-ISAC Institute during autumn 2005. It was designed to be controlled by remote login and to operate for the long-term in extremely adverse weather conditions. This station represents an ideal place for studying regional and long-range air mass transport, due to natural and human processes. Precious 5-day forecast information about air-masses circulation at the ABC-Pyramid site will be supplied daily by Lagrangian backward trajectories, including suitable forecasts of stratosphere-troposphere exchange phenomena.

Publisher Summary This chapter evaluates the ratio of air mass transport quantitatively using radon as a tracer, for Oki and Tonghae. It was found that the contribution of transport from the surface of the continent of China to the surface of Japan reaches 40% under winter monsoon conditions in Japan. In this chapter, some results were presented only for Oki and Tonghae. A similar analysis for Nagoya and Oki was also made. However, 222 Rn concentrations measured at Nagoya are strongly affected by local sources that override the variations in the continental component. This makes the correlation coefficient between Nagoya and Oki much poorer than that between Tonghae and Oki. It was found that diurnal variations were clearer at Tonghae than Oki. By comparing the baseline trends, that are day-to-day trends of daily minima at these two stations, pollutants in the continental air mass were found to be diluted to 40% during their transport over the Sea of Japan in the winter season.

Toxicological studies have implicated trace metals in airborne particles as possible contributors to respiratory and/or cardiovascular inflammation. As part of an epidemiological study, co-located 24 h samples Of PM 10, PM2.5 and black smoke (BS) were collected for 1 year at an urban background site in Edinburgh, and each sample sequentially extracted with ultra-pure water, then concentrated HNO3/HCl, and analysed for Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd and Pb. This yields a comprehensive data set for UK urban airborne trace metal. The median (n > 349) daily water-soluble metal concentration in PM2.5 ranged from 0.05 ng m(-3) for Ti to 5.1 ng m(-3) for Pb; and in PM10 from 0.18 ng m(-3) for Ti to 11.7 ng m(-3) for Fe. Median daily total (i.e. water + acid-extractable) metal concentration in PM2.5 ranged from 0.3 ng m(-3) for As to 27.6 ng m(-3) for Fe; and in PM10 from 0.37 ng m(-3) for As to 183 ng m(-3) for Fe. The PM2.5:PM10 ratio varied considerably with metal, from < 17%, on average, for Ti and Fe, to > 70% for V, As, Cd and Pb. The I I trace metals constituted proportionally more of the PM10-2.5 fraction than of the PM2.5 fraction (0.9%). The proportion of water-soluble metal in each size-fraction varied considerably, from < 10% water-soluble Fe and Ti in PM10-2.5, to > 50% water-soluble V, Zn, As and Cd in PM2.5. Although Fe generally dominated the trace metal, water-soluble metal also contained significant Zn, Pb and Cu, and for all size and solubility fractions > 90% of trace metal was comprised of Fe, Zn, Pb and Cu. Statistical analyses suggested three main sources: traffic; static combustion; and crustal. The association of metals with traffic (Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn) was consistent with traffic-induced non-exhaust "resuspension" rather than direct exhaust emission. Meteorology contributed to the wide variation in daily trace metal concentration. The proportion of trace metal in particles varied significantly with the air mass source and was highest on days for trajectories traversing over land. For Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, As and Ph there was greater correlation of metal concentration with BS mass than with either PM10 or PM2.5 mass, suggesting that BS reflectance monitoring could be a cost-effective surrogate measure of particle metal concentration in urban background air. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This study investigated the influence of regional-scale synoptic weather type and geographical source regions of air masses on two-particle concentration metrics (Black Smoke (BS) and PM10) in the city of Edinburgh, UK, between 1981 and 1996. Twenty-seven classifications of Jenkinson Daily Weather Types (JWT) were sub-divided into 9 directional categories and 3 vorticity categories, and the influence of JWT category on BS and PM10 determined. Four-day air mass back-trajectories for 1 July 1995-30 June 1996 were computed and grouped into 8 categories depending on the geographical route followed. Significantly elevated concentrations of BS (median values 2, 5 and 4 μg m−3 greater than median for 1981-1996) and PM10 (median values 3, 5.5 and 8 μg m−3 greater than median for 1992-1996) were observed for anticyclonic, southerly and south-easterly weather types, respectively. These differences were not identified at conventional levels of significance for BS in 1995-1996. This may reflect a shift in more recent times to lower concentrations of predominantly locally emitted BS less affected by regional scale meteorology. Conversely, significant inter-trajectory category differences were observed for PM10 during 1995-1996, with highest concentrations associated with Eastern European trajectories and south-easterly weather type categories (11.4 and 10.7 μg m−3 greater than annual means, respectively). The variation in particle concentration across weather-type was a significant proportion of total median particle concentration, and of a magnitude associated with adverse health outcomes. Thus current PM10 concentrations (and associated health outcomes) in Edinburgh are likely to be significantly influenced by regional-scale meteorology independent of local air quality management areas. Furthermore, changes in long-term trends in distributions of synoptic weather types indicate that future climate change may influence exposure to PM10 and the PM10:BS ratio in Edinburgh. Further definition of the relationships between long-range transport and particle concentration will improve classification of human exposure in epidemiological studies.

Publisher Summary Polar outbreaks have long attracted the attention of meteorologists, and climatologists. This chapter describes their air temperatures, air mass central pressures, and wind characteristics, in relation to the atmospheric circulation, and their trajectories over the continents. Outbreaks of polar air into low latitudes tend to organize tropical convection, and rain in summer, while the cold air tends to produce cooling in lower latitudes, and freezes in the subtropics during winter. Cold waves accompanying polar outbreaks have significant impacts in America, including adverse effects on coffee production in South America, and on citrus production in North America. Synoptic events leading to cold waves are similar in America, particularly the upper air patterns, and forcing, but the intensity of the outbreaks of temperature, and pressure is larger in North America. Typically, they are associated with an amplified ridge lying across the western edge of the continent. Records of freezes in coffee- and citrus-growing areas are used to reconstruct subtropical climate variability, and identify linkages to low-frequency variability mechanisms in the atmospheric circulation. Results suggest that there is little link between the occurrence of E1 Nino, and cold waves, and it freezes either hemisphere. Citrus freeze occurrences in Florida are linked to long-term variability in the Pacific-North American (PNA) teleconnection pattern, and they appear to occur in clusters concentrated near the end of each century. Comparisons are made of possible paleoclimate scenarios for the occurrence of cold waves based on evidence reconstructed from pollen, and lake sediment samples collected in southeastern, and central Brazil.

Publisher Summary This chapter presents the results of investigation of a new structure of a three-cascade solar cell (which was fabricated by combining liquid phase epitaxy and gas-phase zinc diffusion technologies) under various air mass conditions. Therefore, the air masses during the daytime have been measured on 25 May in Tafila. The current–voltage characteristics of the invented structure (which have been measured under the air mass conditions AM1.06 and AM2.2) showed that the values of short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage are different because of the difference in the intensity of sunlight. Analysis of the structure's main parameters proves that it operates effectively when the flux of short wavelength quanta is predominant in the total energy flux. Therefore, the elaborated structure can be used as sensor of ultra-violet radiation.

It is essential that test results should be available for photovoltaic modules under actual operating conditions if products are to be selected correctly, and if electricity generation predictions are to be reliable. For this reason, an outdoor test facility was erected at Paul Scherrer Institute, PSI, allowing fast current/voltage-characteristic acquisition for photovoltaic modules under all climatic conditions. Module performance is mainly dependent on cell temperature, insolation intensity, air mass and diffuse fraction in the global irradiance. Efficiency and its temperature coefficient are determined by evaluating current/voltage-scans at constant insolation, air mass and diffuse irradiance, but different cell temperatures. Additional scans at different insolation intensities and air masses but constant diffuse irradiance allow their effect on the efficiency to be studied and modelled, leading to the Standard Test Condition (STC) data as well as to the behaviour of the modules in part-load operation and at different air masses. Ultimately, the most important result is a correlation representing the module's efficiency as a function of the insolation intensity, cell temperature, air mass and diffuse irradiance. This paper presents results obtained from two modules, i.e. from a monocrystalline module (SIEMENS Solar's SM110) and from an amorphous module (UNISOLAR's triple junction module US-30). The module (cell) efficiencies under Standard Test Conditions were 12.4 (14.9) and 6.26 (7.43) % respectively. The corresponding temperature coefficients of the efficiency were found to be minus 0.062 and minus 0.010 %/°C. The STC powers were found to be 107.8 and 29.8 W, e. g. 2 and 0.7 % below the rated power specified by the suppliers. Compared to results of other modules [3], these two modules perform very well. Regarding the amorphous module, however, it is still uncertain whether the degradation process is complete. Additional tests will be required after an extended period of outdoor exposure to answer this question. The monocrystalline module demonstrates an attractive part load behaviour, and its efficiency shows a maximum value at an insolation intensity of approximately 600 Wm-2. No significant AM-effect on the efficiency was observed with this module. A strong decrease in efficiency with increasing air mass was found with the US-30 triple junction module. However, its sensitivity against varying diffuse irradiance seems to be negligible and its part-load behaviour is fairly good. The relatively low absolute value of the temperature coefficient of efficiency makes it a good candidate for hot climate applications. In contrast with crystalline silicon cells, the amorphous triple junction cell exhibits a non-linear efficiency vs. temperature relation. Highest efficiencies, up to 8 %, were measured with this module at low air masses (1.2 - 1.5) under the blue-filtering effect of clouds in front of the sun. Measurements from PSI's test facility were well confirmed by the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, FhG-ISE, D-79100, Germany.

Publisher Summary Aerosol measurements were made on board the RV “Polarstern” during its transect from Bremerhaven, Germany to Punta Arenas, Chile. Continuous size distribution measurements down to particle diameter 3.5 nm indicate that nucleation is not occurring in boundary layer air masses, with two notable exceptions occurring in subsiding air masses or in “Fohn” conditions respectively. The lack of nucleation in the marine boundary layer (MBL) is associated with high levels of accumulation mode aerosol and the presence of anthropogenic tracers. Air mass trajectory analysis, however, shows that the corresponding air masses have been near the ocean surface for at least 10 days, which suggests that these tracers are fed into the MBL by entrainment from the overlying free troposphere in which they can be transported over long distances.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the changes in hygroscopic growth of atmospheric submicrometer particles during air mass subsidence events in remote marine environments. Sea-level measurements of the hygroscopic growth of submicrometer aerosol particles were performed during the ACE-1 field experiment in the South Tasmanian Sea, and on a north–south transect across the Pacific Ocean preceding the ACE-1 intensive campaign. A Hygroscopic Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer (H-TDMA) was used to measure the hygroscopic diameter growth of submicrometer aerosol particles, when taken from a dry state to a humid state with a relative humidity of 90%. A substantial lowering of the hygroscopic growth factors was seen during events with air mass subsidence resulting in increased sea-level particle concentrations in the ultrafine (

Publisher Summary Air concentrations of 210 Pb and particle bound sulfur that are both secondary aerosol tracers were used in this chapter to depict air quality. Long-term variations of air quality in Northern Europe were closely related to the surface conditions of the Nordic Seas. For example, the amount of warm saline Atlantic water in the North Sea almost invariably governs air quality climate in the Nordic Countries to a degree that makes long-term forecasting possible. Any prompt correlation between climate and sunspot cycle appears to be illogical because the weather forcing mechanism must work through slowly acting processes in the Nordic Seas. However, it is possible that interactions between two climate change that trigger mechanisms based on sound principles may act in the direction of synchronizing the pendular motion of climate with the variable activity of the sun. When the warm Gulf stream meets the arctic air mass in winter, the raising air causes cyclonic activity. The ionization rate in the upper troposphere and the stratosphere is much higher during periods of quiet sun than during the sunspot maxima and may enhance the cyclonic activity. Increasing precipitation, run-off, and melting of ice, on the other hand, easily weaken the thermohaline circulation, leading to a colder sea surface and a more continental climate, which on the average involves greater air pollution.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the variation of the aerosol number concentration and its disperse composition in the presence of atmospheric fronts because it follows from the results obtained during 1993–1994 over Tomsk. It reveals some properties of aerosol disperse composition dynamics within the frontal zones and certain differences depending on the geographic type of air mass divided by fronts. It shows the aerosol number concentration behavior in the presence of fronts regardless of their geographical type. Minimum of the aerosol number concentration on the aerosol size distribution curve 1–2 hours before the cold front passage can be a result of most frequently occurring cold front of the second type in which precipitation falls as well as in front of the front line and behind it. Significant maximum aerosol number concentration behavior due to the warm front passage is most likely determined by wind strengthening in the prefrontal zone after which the precipitation area follows thus, causing aerosol washout. The aerosol size-distribution behavior in the presence of an occlusion front confirms the assumption on the aerosol number concentration increase due to the prefrontal wind strengthening followed by an extensive precipitation area, which causes the aerosol washout started before the front passage and remaining after it for a long time.

Publisher Summary This chapter uses the data collected by the Met Research Flight's C-130 aircraft during flights around the UK and Europe in air masses with various levels of pollution in order to extend the parameterization presented by Martin, referred to as MJS94. This parameterization hinges on the use of the effective radius, a measure of the ratio of absorption to scattering for an ensemble of cloud droplets. Bulk aerosol and cloud droplet measurements and the droplet size distribution derived quantity κ show that a parameterization, treated as an extension to the MJS94 parameterization, for the effective radius of cloud droplets within highly polluted air masses, including those over land surfaces, is possible. Such a parameterization can be envisaged as the evolution of an air mass away from the source region (over land) over the sea as the aerosol dilutes, sediments out, and is processed. The processing of aerosol by cloud could also be parameterized—in terms of the nucleation, accumulation, and coarse mode mass or number concentration, as a function of distance or time. Changes in number concentration, within the accumulation mode especially, has implications for the direct scattering of solar radiation (direct forcing effect) and CCN characteristics (indirect forcing effect).

Publisher Summary On a regional scale, the indirect effect of aerosols is investigated by analyzing the impact of anthropogenic sulfur emissions on the microstructure and short-wave albedo of clouds formed at a mountain-top location, and simultaneously observing these clouds by AVHRR (advanced high resolution radiometer) aboard the NOAA (national oceanographic and atmospheric administration) satellites. The aerosol content of the cloud forming air mass is analyzed for size and morphology by electron microscopy and X-ray energy spectrometer. The ionic composition of cloud water is measured together with meteorological parameters. The thickness of the overlying clouds and the 48 h back trajectories of air masses are determined from on site measurements and hybrid single particle Lagarangian integrated trajectory (HY-SPLIT) model. The short-wave albedo of clouds determined from in situ measurements decreased with an increase in cloud water pH, which was largely affected by the sulfate concentration in the cloud forming air mass. For six coincidental cloud events, the AVHRR retrieved cloud albedo agreed well with those determined from in situ microphysical measurements, the correlation coefficient being 0.95. These findings indicate that the sulfate contents of air masses are capable of influencing the shortwave albedo of thin, continental clouds.

Publisher Summary This chapter explains the determination of suitable weather conditions for forest aerial spraying A study was initiated to determine what weather factors are of prime importance in governing spray deposit and what limiting factors exist in determining most suitable spray weather. Meteorological measurements were taken in the region from aircraft height to tree top height and from tree top height to ground level. To provide extra data, wet and dry bulb sensors were mounted on the spray aircraft. Spray deposits were collected on 100 cm2 kromekote cards and glass plates with a surface area of 10 × 7.5 cm. Dyed fuel oil or dyed water was used in the experimental applications for the phase I studies. At the time of each spray application, and for the time period during which the droplets were settling to the target, mean values for wind speed, direction, turbulence, and relative humidity were recorded. There was a correlation between percentage of spray deposited and the stability ratio of the air mass above the tree tops for all sprays whether experimental or operational.

Evidence of ozone transport from the coastal urban complex was found in Jerusalem. The arrival of ozone from the coast was manifested by a sudden increase in ozone concentrations in Jerusalem during the early afternoon. The ozone increase was accompanied by a similar sharp rise in the water vapor mixing ratio, indicating the arrival of a distinct air mass from the coast. In this study three years' ozone measurements were analyzed. The results showed that transport phenomena were frequent, especially during the summer months. The most important meteorological factors determining transport were wind velocity and the presence of low level inversions. A correlation coefficient of r = 0.75 was found between ozone maxima in Jerusalem and the height of the base of the inversion layer.

This chapter discusses the climatological changes that give rise to changes in the outside weather conditions. The day-to-day changes in weather conditions are caused by movement of air masses, especially in the form of fronts, and by local phenomena resulting from land patterns. Thermal force due to the temperature difference of the air masses result in a pressure difference. Geostrophic force is set up by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The force acts at right angles to the direction in which the air is moving with an intensity varying with the sine of the latitude. Contact between warm and cold masses cause waves to be formed along the line of contact, or “front” in a way analogous to the waves being formed due to a contact between wind and sea. When cold air of low absolute humidity moves towards warmer areas, the heating of the air reduces its relative humidity; however, when warm, moist air is cooled, condensation takes place resulting in cloud and rain. A well-known example of this is the monsoon.

Fungi belonging to the genus of Alternaria are recognised as being significant plant pathogens, and Alternaria allergens are one of the most important causes of respiratory allergic diseases in Europe. This study aims to provide a detailed and original analysis of Alternaria transport dynamics in Badajoz, SW Spain. This was achieved by examining daily mean and hourly observations of airborne Alternaria spores recorded during days with high airborne concentrations of Alternaria spores (100 s m(-3)) from 2009 to 2011, as well as four inventory maps of major Alternaria habitats, the overall synoptic weather situation and analysis of air mass transport using Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory model and geographic information systems. Land use calculated within a radius of 100 km from Badajoz shows that crops and grasslands are potentially the most important local sources of airborne Alternaria spores recorded at the site. The results of back trajectory analysis show that, during the examined four episodes, the two main directions where Alternaria source areas were located were: (1) SW-W; and (2) NW-NE. Regional scale and long distance transport could therefore supplement the airborne catch recorded at Badajoz with Alternaria conidia originating from sources such as crops and orchards situated in other parts of the Iberian Peninsula.