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Contemporary emotion theories have come to conceptualize emotions as multicomponent and dynamic phenomena. Central to this dynamical perspective is that emotions are viewed as a series of dynamic and recursive events that unfold over time, rather than single discrete responses. This chapter describes the architecture of emotions, decomposed into more elementary constituents including antecedent parts such as appraisal, and response parts like physiological responses, facial expressions, and the subjective experience or conscious feeling. The chapter mainly focuses on food-related emotions. Several methods are explained that allow measurement of the temporal dynamics of emotion components, including mapping of the relevant time-course variables. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the main implications of measuring temporal dynamics of emotion responses.

In an attempt to bring some order to this dizzying cornucopia of emotion theories, scientists have created a particular narrative framework to group theories a few broad categories. The standard narrative framework constitutes one of the largest barriers to scientific progress in the science of emotion. It conceals meaningful variation within a single category of emotion theories (eg, appraisal theories of emotion), and it obfuscates similarities across categories (eg, appraisal theories and basic emotion theories). This leaves both newcomers and scientists ill-equipped to make informed decisions about how to measure emotions. In this chapter, I offer a different narrative framework—one that provides a firmer theoretical footing with which to make more informed measurement decisions.

Our thoughts, behavior, experiences, and relationship with the world are all influenced by our emotions, which are a central component of what makes us human. Emotions are forces that help us make sense of our interactionswith the world. Human behavior is a direct consequence of emotions, with the emotions directly affecting perception, cognition, personality system, body language, and the mind. While some emotions are innate, others are learned and synthesized from accrued knowledge. This chapter looks at the evolution of emotion driven design and the related theories and research. It also offers a glimpse of what is to come in this field with the latest technological advances.

This chapter presents an overview of emotional and affective components in human factors (HF) and human–computer interaction (HCI). First, the definitions of terminologies are clarified. After describing neural and cognitive mechanisms of affect, I provide theories of affective effects so that researchers can apply them to their research areas and develop their own theory further. Then, the chapter focuses on introducing and comparing four different approaches to Affective Sciences in HF/HCI, including Emotional Design, Hedonomics, Kansei Engineering, and Affective Computing. After delineating advantages and disadvantages of affect induction and detection methodologies, theoretical and practical issues and future works of this domain are discussed. This short review is expected to guide HF/HCI researchers and practitioners who begin to study emotions and affect, and to facilitate communication about emotions and affect within the HF/HCI community.

A motivational analysis of emotion regulation focuses on understanding what motivates people to regulate emotions, and how such motivating factors operate and shape the process and outcomes of emotion regulation. We consider emotion regulation as a process that occurs within a larger motivational network. Within this network, people use emotion regulation strategies to achieve desired emotional states (i.e., emotion goals) in the service of higher-order goals (i.e., motives in emotion regulation). We review the lessons learned about motives, goals, and their interconnections. First, we identify possible motives in emotion regulation. Second, we discuss how motives in emotion regulation can give rise to various emotion goals. Third, we discuss how emotion goals may prioritize certain emotion regulation strategies. Next, we review empirical research derived from the motivational analysis of emotion regulation and its implications for understanding emotional experiences, social interactions, psychopathology, and well-being. Finally, we explore how a motivational analysis can inform future studies of emotion regulation.

Emotions play a role in nearly everything we do and think. Understanding people and their interactions requires an understanding of emotion. And science can contribute to that understanding. Here, I cannot cover everything in the science of emotion, but cover enough to introduce the reader to an emerging new way of thinking about emotion that is an alternative to the traditional Basic Emotion Theory taught in textbooks. I contrast the new way with the traditional way by examining the subjective experience of emotion, information processing during emotion, and facial expressions of emotion.

Emotions contain appraisal, reactivity, and feeling stages that serve evolutionarily adaptive functions. Although emotional processing is adaptive, it can also be advantageous to regulate one’s emotional response. In this chapter, we introduce the neural mechanisms associated with emotional appraisal, reactivity, feeling, and regulation. Given the great breadth of possible emotional behaviors and experiences, we only provide an abbreviated introduction into the neural mechanisms of emotion. The chapter summarizes early research assessing deficits in emotional processing following localized brain damage to more modern research using functional neuroimaging techniques. The reviewed literature illustrates that emotion is not a singular process and the neural substrate of emotion is not a singular region.

Gender differences in emotion experience and expression represent some of the most robust gender stereotypes worldwide. However, empirical support for these stereotypes is lacking, especially from research utilizing objective measures, such as neuroimaging methodologies. In this chapter, we review functional neuroimaging studies that have empirically tested for gender differences in the association between brain function and emotion processes (including perception, reactivity, regulation, and experience). We present evidence that there are gender differences in the neural mechanisms underlying emotion processes, and a likely interpretation is that males and females use different strategies during emotion processing, which may lead to gender differences in observed (or subjectively reported) processing of emotion (the emotion process). We discuss how these findings may offer insight into the mechanisms underlying gender differences in emotional behaviors, and outline a number of methodological factors that should be taken into consideration when interpreting this field of research.

Deficits in facial emotion recognition in Huntington's disease (HD) have been extensively researched, however, a theory-based integration of these deficits into the broader picture of emotion processing is lacking. To describe the full extent of emotion processing deficits we reviewed the clinical research literature in HD, including a consideration of research in Parkinson's disease, guided by a theoretical model on emotion processing, the Component Process Model. Further, to contribute to understanding the mechanisms underlying deficient emotion recognition, we discussed the literature in light of specific emotion recognition theories. Current evidence from HD studies indicates deficits in the production of emotional facial expressions and alterations in subjective emotional experiences, in addition to emotion recognition deficits. Conceptual understanding of emotions remains relatively intact. Impaired recognition and expression of emotion in HD might be linked, whereas altered emotional experiences appear to be unrelated to emotion recognition. A key implication of this review is the need to take all the components of emotion processing into account to understand specific deficits in neurodegenerative diseases.

Emotions, and more generally, affective states, have become a crucial part of human–computer interaction (HCI) research. This new wave of research considers users’ emotions explicitly to design interactive artifacts with the ability of estimating and responding to their users’ emotional states. To this end, researchers have looked for a reliable means to elicit emotions in research settings. An experimental approach to elicit emotions originates from either considering emotion as an independent variable that contributes to a phenomenon, or as an outcome. Regardless of the motivation for studying emotion, in this chapter we explain the most reliable emotion elicitation techniques. Some of the techniques are more common in the clinical environments while others are used in experimental designs, especially in HCI research. This chapter will help researchers, designers, and practitioners find the most appropriate technique for their experimental settings.

In this chapter, we review the current state of knowledge about neural and genetic pathways that influence three emotional processes: (1) emotional reactivity, which is generating emotions in response to challenges, threats, and opportunities; (2) emotional regulation, which is adjusting emotional responses to meet personal, interpersonal, and social goals and standards; and (3) emotional affiliation, which is using emotions to create and maintain social connections. Emotional reactivity, regulation, and affiliation are all critical for daily living and maintaining mental and physical health; each is highly vulnerable to disruption in psychopathology and neuropathology. In the final part of the chapter, we consider ways in which tools and concepts derived from modern affective science can help elucidate the relationships among neural circuits, genes, emotional functioning, and pathology and provide insights about etiology, diagnosis, and treatment that can be useful in clinical contexts.

In this chapter, we summarize the neurocognitive processes underlying acute pain and the impact of emotions on these processes. First, we briefly introduce the neural substrates of nociception and pain, as well as emotions, and potential shared networks. Then, we focus on the emotional modulation of experimentally induced acute pain by affective visual stimuli, both affective scenes and emotional faces. Thus we review literature investigating the influence of emotions on subjective, peripheral, and cerebral correlates of pain perception. A special section thereby deals with the effect of facial expressions of pain perception and on the mutual influences. Overall, a viewpoint emerges that emotions can exert their effects at multiple levels of pain processing (supraspinal and spinal). However, it also becomes clear that pain reversely influences emotion perception, although future research needs to probe the effects of pain at various levels of emotion processing by using different psychophysiological methods. Furthermore, the emotion–pain interactions and their neural substrates, which potentially are characterized by multiple feedback mechanisms, still need to be clarified more precisely.

The present chapter introduces measurement concepts of emotion in clinical practice. This context encompasses diagnosis and treatment of psychological and medical disturbances, in which emotions are central. Understanding emotional processes and contents as they relate to mental and physical disorders is crucial, because emotions are important components of the etiological models explaining the occurrence and evolution of disturbances. At the same time, the volatility of the emotional phenomena themselves—the dynamic feature meaning that they may change quickly over time—imposes methodological complexity in assessment of emotions in clinical practice. Whereas self-report questionnaires generally fail to capture these dynamic features of emotion, assessment of emotion in experimentally controlled situations may be better able to capture such aspects, but usually suffers from limitations related to lack of generalization and low relevance for the actual clinical practice. This chapter presents two partially overlapping tools for the assessment of emotions in clinical practice. Firstly, we present the different forms of therapist empathy as tools to “live from the inside” the client’s emotion: empathic understanding, affirmation, evocation, exploration, conjecture, and refocusing. We show the effectiveness of empathy in various therapy contexts, by referring to current meta-analytic studies. Secondly, we elaborate a differentiated perspective on emotion categories. Namely, in order to differentiate highly productive emotional states in clients from less productive ones, we differentiate between primary adaptive, primary maladaptive, secondary, and instrumental emotions. In a final part of the chapter, we describe how emotion measurement in clinical practice may be carried out, by briefly presenting a number of more classical assessment instruments, mainly by using self-reported questionnaires. Given the context described and the volatility of the phenomena, an observer-rated perspective will also be developed. We will discuss how it is possible to take into account for assessment the fact that emotion is a dynamic and unfolding process, partially unaware to the patient, within the dialogue between the patient and the therapist.

Most models of multimedia learning focus primarily on cognitive factors and do not sufficiently consider the impact of affect on learning. However, recent research has shown that the emotional design of multimedia learning material can induce positive emotions in learners that in turn facilitate comprehension and transfer ( Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012 ). Other research has investigated which design factors (e.g., shape, color) can induce emotions in multimedia learning ( Plass, Heidig, Hayward, Homer & Um, 2014 ). Recent advances in affective neuroscience and emotion research confirmed that the human mind is continuously emotional ( Izard, 2009 ; Lewis, 2005 ; Tucker, 2007 ). That is, cognition and emotion are inherently interconnected. This interconnectedness is an essential aspect of the complexity of human consciousness. An important quality of this interconnectedness is that emotional activity enables and sustains cognitive activity, including mechanisms that are central to learning, such as attention and memory ( Tucker, 2007 ). Based on our own research and that of others, we propose in this chapter a model integrating cognitive and affective aspects of learning with digital media that will allow us to derive questions for future research in this area. The model combines elements of Pekrun’s (2000) Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions; Picard’s (1997) Affective Computing approach; Izard’s (2007) Differential Emotions Theory; and Moreno and Mayer’s (2007) Cognitive Affective Theory of Multimedia Learning. Our integrative approach to cognition and emotion is an important step for making designs of multimedia learning more compatible with the real-life complexity of how the human mind functions and changes. In this chapter, implications of this approach for the design and research involving digital learning environments are discussed, such as simulations, games, and virtual worlds.

Interest in the interplay between emotion and sleep deprivation has never been higher. Sleep problems affect large numbers of people in the general population, but they are particularly relevant to those in medical and psychiatric settings. As our knowledge about the emotional consequences of sleep problems progresses, we are increasingly aware of how intimately connected sleep and emotion really are. Much of this awareness has come from laboratory-based studies in which sleep and emotion can be manipulated experimentally with high levels of control. This is an exciting time to conduct these kinds of studies because, despite being fairly advanced, both affective science and sleep research have only recently begun to be integrated. In this chapter, we review many of the methods used in sleep-deprivation and emotion research to date. The chapter is organized around methods of emotion elicitation, measurement of emotional function, and experimental design. We end with suggestions for future research in this exciting and largely unexplored domain.

Although neglected until the 1990s, the study of emotions in workplace settings is now recognized as a legitimate and important field of research in industrial and organizational psychology. In this article, I review the field of emotion in the workplace from five perspectives, corresponding to five discrete levels of analysis: (1) within-person temporal effects, (2) between-person (personality and attitudes) factors, (3) interpersonal behaviors (perception and communication of emotion), (4) group level (leadership and teams), and (5) organizational level (culture and climate). Within these perspectives, I address the importance of affective events theory, deal with positive and negative affect (state vs trait), as well as emotional intelligence, labor, and contagion. The article concludes with suggestions for future research.

This article is a revision of the previous edition article by G. Mandler, volume 7, pp. 4437–4440, © 2001, Elsevier Ltd.

Emotions evolved to serve our need to communicate quickly and efficiently. Expressions serve as symptoms of our internal states, a signal appealing to others for action, and a symbol to convey information about an event. Expression produces outwardly visible cues interpreted by perceivers for their valuable information. Expression and perception is largely automatic, yet also results from norms in expressing and perceiving emotions. Although expressions may have originated from reflexive actions, they have evolved into a complicated system providing information about other people's reactions, attitudes, and likely behaviors. Reading these messages confers an advantage for interpersonal interactions.

The scientific study of emotional expression began with studies of facial expression in the nineteenth century. Studying these expressions has been an important site for disputes over the existence of a universal human nature and disputes about whether emotions are naturally divided into a manageable number of discrete kinds with innate patterns of behavior evolved by natural selection. A more recent dispute concerns the extent to which facial expressions are voluntary, performative strategies for social gain, as opposed to involuntary expressions of subjective feeling.

Emotional development is a uniquely integrative and psychologically constructive feature of psychological growth in infancy and childhood. The role of emotions in behavior and development, and the nature of emotion itself, are discussed in relation to structuralist and functionalist approaches to emotional development. The focus then turns to considering ‘what is emotional development the development of?’ and the contributions of psychobiological and neurobiological growth, perceptual processes, emotion understanding, the growth of self-awareness and self-understanding, understanding of emotional display rules, and the development of emotion regulation are considered. The article concludes with consideration of the importance of social relationships to early emotional development and future directions for research in this field.

This article is a revision of the previous edition article by P.E. Griffiths, volume 7, pp. 4433–4437, © 2001, Elsevier Ltd.

Attention to emotion and affect is a wide register running through the history of anthropology. Until recently, however, emotions and affect have not often been explicitly articulated as a force in themselves in theories of culture, history, and ways of life. This article traces the history of affect and emotion in anthropology and reveals emergent trajectories for future work. It situates affect and emotion historically and highlights key writings on these themes in cultural, physical, and linguistic anthropology, and in archaeology. Ultimately, it positions affect as a fruitful analytical tool for anthropology and as a generative source of cross-subfield dialogue.

The laboratory study of emotion has led to a strong theoretical understanding of how emotions arise and what occurs at the level of behavior, subjective experience, and physiology throughout the time course of an emotion. In order to elicit emotion, researchers have used a flexible array of visual, auditory, and biological procedures. Further, a vast collection of well-established measures allows for the comprehensive assessment of an emotion once it has been elicited. This chapter provides an overview of emotion-elicitation paradigms, discussing the assessment strategies most commonly used to measure emotions across their time course. We also consider the modification of an elicitation or assessment approach to fit the population of interest, as well as the impact of sleep deprivation on emotion.

Emotional experience and regulation continue to change in a number of ways through adulthood. In many aspects, such changes appear to benefit emotional functioning. The aim of this article is to review the literature on adult development about emotion, including empirical findings and conceptual accounts of age differences in functioning. We focus on four aspects of emotional functioning: (1) subjective experience, (2) physiology, (3) behavioral expression, and (4) regulation. The discussion of theoretical mechanisms underlying age differences in emotion covers a range of different approaches, including biological, environmental, and motivational.

This article is a revision of the previous edition article by K. Oatley, volume 7, pp. 4440–4444, © 2001, Elsevier Ltd.

Emotions are short-term episodes involving feelings, cognitive appraisals, motivational action tendencies, motor expressions, and physiological changes. External or internal events elicit emotions. Emotions have been shaped by evolutionary adaptation and by sociocultural contexts. Theorists disagree about the relative importance of and the interrelations between emotion components, the differentiation of emotional from nonemotional episodes, the relative extent of evolutionary and sociocultural impact (more universality vs more cultural specificity), and the dimensionality of the emotion space. Future directions in emotion research focus on aesthetic and positive emotions, emotions in social contexts, brain correlates of emotions, and interdisciplinary approaches to studying emotions.

The premise that emotions influence decisions is widely accepted, but relatively few studies have directly measured or manipulated emotional variables during decision making. This chapter surveys the current literature on this topic. Emotion modulates choices through two main routes. The first is through incidental affect, in which a baseline affective state can shift choices, although it is unrelated to the decision. This can be assessed through techniques such as stress or mood induction, and affective priming. The second way emotion can influence decisions is by being directly incorporated into the value computation during choice. For example, it has been shown that physiological arousal responses to the choice options or outcomes are linked to decisions. If we can characterize how emotion modulates choices, then we should also be able to alter choices by changing emotional states. We discuss how techniques such as emotion regulation and targeting memory reconsolidation might flexibly modulate choice.

Publisher Summary This chapter highlights how emotional and social factors can influence the appraisal of the choice options in altering the decision and its underlying neural representation. Emotion is a broad concept that is thought to represent a range of component affective processes. One of the traditional techniques used in affective science to introduce an affective component into a task is mood induction. Other means to examine the role of emotion in decisions is to measure and quantify emotional reactions and relate those measurements to other observable aspects of the decision task. One commonly used physiological response is the skin conductance response (SCR), an indication of autonomic nervous system arousal. Using SCR, one of the first studies to make the case for arousal as a component of subjective value examined patients with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in the performance of a risky gambling task. The insular cortex is a region implicated in a broad range of mental processes, including affective responses in a social context.

Without an understanding of the different dimensions of emotion, it can be difficult to envision how the different aspects of a design will satisfy users’ emotional needs. Chapter 2 is a detailed exploration of the psychology of emotion, including the experience of emotion, the expression of emotion, and the way that emotion contributes to our mental models.

What is the relation between cognition and emotion? Three kinds of answers can be discerned from the educational and psychological literature. First, some emotional reactions can be elicited without the intervention of cognition (the opposite has not yet been documented). Second, cognition is a cause of emotion. Thus, many emotional reactions and modulations are contingent upon or influenced by the individual’s (cognitive) appraisal of the stimuli coming from his/her body, mind, and environment. There is also a robust relationship between the individual’s understanding of emotion (including of their regulation) and his/her emotional well-being. Third, emotion is a cause of cognition. Thus, emotional arousal and valence have an influence on, for example, memory, attention, and creativity. This impact is neither linear nor symmetrical: Emotional arousal has to be neither too low nor too high to have an optimum impact and the impact of negative emotions seems clearer than the impact of positive emotions. In this article, we claim that the identification of causal relations between cognition and emotion may to a great extent depend on the moment one takes a snapshot in the flow of the individual’s subjective experience. We also claim that, as a function of the situation (context, circumstances, etc.) and the individual (personality level of development, etc.), either cognition or emotion may be dominating the individual’s mental functioning and, further, that the absence of this circularity would be dysfunctional for the individual.

Affect is comprised of emotions, which are specific, intense, and short responses to stimuli, and moods, which are longer, more ambiguous, and nonattributable affective feelings of lower intensity. Contemporary researchers have focused on three main characteristics of affect. Functional aspects emphasize the evolutionary underpinning of affect and its adaptive value in humans and nonhuman animal. Researchers also investigate affect as arising from the experience of bodily cues. Finally, cognitive theories demonstrate that appraisals can modify an affective experience. Although the different approaches vary in their emphasis on distinct components, they continue to contribute to the general understanding of affective phenomena.

Social decisions are heavily influenced by emotion. For decades, the dominant research paradigm has been characterized by a focus on the decision maker's own positive or negative mood. We argue that a full understanding of the role of emotion in social decision making requires a complementary focus on interpersonal effects (i.e., the effects of one individual's emotions on the other's behavior); a focus on discrete emotions rather than general mood states; and a distinction between cooperative and competitive settings. To advance insight into these issues, we present the Emotions as Social Information (EASI) model. The model is grounded in two basic assumptions, namely that individuals use others' emotions to make sense of ambiguous situations, and that the effects of others' emotions and the processes that drive them depend critically on the cooperative or competitive nature of the situation. A review of recent research supports our analysis. We demonstrate that the interpersonal effects of emotions are pervasive and can be better understood in terms of the unique social functions of each emotion than in terms of valence. Effects in cooperative settings are best explained in terms of affective reactions (i.e., emotional contagion, affect infusion, and mood management), whereas effects in competitive contexts are better understood in terms of the strategic inferences individuals draw from other's emotions. We conclude by discussing the implications of our model and highlighting avenues for future research.

Emotions are an incredibly important aspect of our lives. In this article, we differentiate between the terms affect and emotion, define emotion, and describe the emotion response system, which involves subjective experience and communicative behaviors (along with physiology and cognition). We discuss the qualitative uniqueness of the subjective experience of emotions, and how emotions are primarily communicated through facial expressions, which are universal and biologically innate. We also describe how culture influences universal emotional expressions, and the existence of both macro- and microexpressions of emotion, adding further complexity to their nature, form, and function.

1. Introduction, Lisa Feldman Barrett, Paula M. Niedenthal, and Piotr Winkielman I. Cognition and Emotion 2. Embodiment in the Acquisition and Use of Emotion Knowledge, Paula M. Niedenthal, Lawrence W. Barsalou, Francois Ric, and Silvia Krauth-Gruber 3. The Interaction of Emotion and Cognition: Insights from Studies of the Human Amygdala, Elizabeth A. Phelps 4. Affect and the Resolution of Cognitive Control Dilemmas, Jeremy R. Gray, Alexandre Schaefer, Todd S. Braver, and Steven B. Most II. Unconscious Emotional Processing: Perception of Visual Stimuli 5. Caught by the Evil Eye: Nonconscious Information Processing, Emotion, and Attention to Facial Stimuli, Daniel Lundqvist and Arne OEhman 6. Nonconscious Emotions: New Findings and Perspectives on Nonconscious Facial Expression Recognition and Its Voice and Whole-Body Contexts, Beatrice de Gelder 7. Visual Emotion Perception: Mechanisms and Processes, Anthony P. Atkinson and Ralph Adolphs III. Unconscious Emotional Behavior 8. Conscious and Unconscious Emotion in Nonlinguistic Vocal Communication, Michael J. Owren, Drew Rendall, and Jo-Anne Bachorowski 9. Behavior Systems and the Contextual Control of Anxiety, Fear, and Panic, Mark E. Bouton IV. The Experience of Emotion 10. Emotion Experience and the Indeterminacy of Valence, Louis C. Charland 11. Feeling Is Perceiving: Core Affect and Conceptualization in the Experience of Emotion, Lisa Feldman Barrett V. Perspectives On the Conscious-Unconscious Debate 12. Emotion Processes Considered from the Perspective of Dual-Process Models, Eliot R. Smith and Roland Neumann 13. Unconscious Processes in Emotion: The Bulk of the Iceberg, Klaus R. Scherer 14. Emotion, Behavior, and Conscious Experience, Piotr Winkielman, Kent Berridge, and Julie Wilbarger 15. Emotions, Embodiment, and Awareness, Jesse J. Prinz 16. Seven Sins in the Study of Unconscious Affect, Gerald L. Clore, Justin Storbeck, Michael D. Robinson, and David B. Centerbar

This article provides a comprehensive examination of the evolution of human emotion with special emphasis on the signals used in social communication. It describes emotion from three main perspectives: the biological adaptive nature of emotion, social communication and the relationship between facial expressions and emotion, and finally, unique human emotions such as self-conscious moral emotions. The first section examines the nature of emotion as an innate, biological reflex underlying adaptive behavior. It describes the automaticity of emotion processes as biased toward detecting negative information. It concludes with a discussion of innate facial reactions to taste and the importance of early experience in the normal development of emotional behavior. The biological adaptive nature of emotions is a common property underlying the behavior of most animals and all primates. The second section discusses the relationship between facial expressions and emotions and raises the possibility that some human and nonhuman primate facial expressions are homologous. In support of this assumption, it describes the development of a new facial action coding system for identifying chimpanzee facial expressions that is based on the well-known human coding system. This is particularly important for understanding the evolution of emotion in that it provides an objective basis for comparing emotional signals across related species. The final section introduces social complexity as a factor driving the elaboration of the neocortex among primates. Species with complex societies evolved behavioral strategies for dealing with flexible and interchanging relationships. This section goes on to describe the behavioral displays and brain systems underlying self-conscious, social emotions, such as shame, pride, embarrassment, and guilt. These social emotions require that individuals have basic theory-of-mind skills and may be unique human specializations. The section concludes with a potential mechanism for the evolution of social emotions, or emotional awareness, based on social contagion, a low-level form of empathy that is present in many large-brain social species.

Publisher Summary This chapter raises some issues related to inquiry on emotions in education. In spite of the emotional nature of classrooms, inquiry on emotions in educational contexts, outside of a few notable exceptions has been slow to emerge. Students' test anxiety has been the only emotion in this field that has strongly and continuously attracted researchers' interest. From more than 1000 empirical studies conducted over a span of more than five decades, there is evidence on the structures, antecedents, and effects of this emotion, as well as on measures suited to prevent excessive test anxiety by changing education, and to treat this emotion once it occurred. The call for research on emotions has been heard, and recently, there has been a discernible increase in the number of scholars investigating emotions in educational contexts. The chapter highlights the most contemporary, informative, and formative research in the areas of emotions and emotional regulation in education.

The dual psychological and physiological nature of emotion has focused health research on both direct (emotion physiology to disease physiology) and indirect (emotion to risky behavior to disease) pathways from emotions to disease. The identification of both types of pathway and their interactions promises new insights into disease processes and mortality.

Publisher Summary The chapter reviews the research and its progress on the cognitive science of personality and emotion. It describes the classic model of cognitive science and its three levels of explanation: the biological, the symbol processing, and the knowledge levels. Information-processing models are necessary but not sufficient for the understanding of the cognitive science. Cognitive-science explanations provide new perspectives on some old problems and demonstrate its application to anxiety. The cognitive science of emotion has disparate roots, which demonstrate the diversity of cognitive approaches. The information-processing approach is based on empirical and performance-based studies of emotion that addresses problems such as the deleterious effects of anxiety on attention. The multifaceted emerging cognitive science of personality and emotion is clarified by distinguishing information-processing models from explanations of the phenomena that describes those models.

Publisher Summary This chapter provides the basic emotion concepts and the popular approaches to studying emotion. The chapter begins by differentiating three related constructs—affect, emotion, and mood; and differentiates between emotional experience and expression. Three prominent approaches to emotion that are discussed in the social psychology are reviewed: the discrete emotions, dimensional, and prototype approaches. Affective valence is the most basic feature of emotion. Emotions are characterized by four components. The cognitive component refers to the interpretation of the emotion-eliciting event or stimuli, and any resultant changes in perceptions or beliefs. Action readiness concerns increases or decreases in one's desire to take action. The third component, feelings, references the valence of the emotion, including the pleasure/pain dimension. Finally, physiological change refers to increases or decreases in arousal level and physiological reactions such as sweaty palms and blushing. Emotions are typically characterized as having an object or identifiable stimulus event, such as joy after having a child or anger at being jilted. In contrast, moods are frequently described as more diffuse and nonspecific.

Publisher Summary Emotion is central to the structure and processes of personality and the conflicts and crises that accompany personality development. Establishing the links between emotion and personality offers great promise for the studies of personality and emotion—such research points to the social and biological mechanisms underlying the structure and continuity of personality, and presents a framework for thinking about the elaboration, stability, and social consequences of specific emotion tendencies. This chapter reviews the evidence relating facial expressions of emotion to personality. The chapter begins with a presentation of the discrete emotions perspective, which specifies how specific emotion tendencies observed early in life elaborate into personality traits. The chapter then outlines how facial expressions of emotion mediate the interaction between personality and the social environment. It also presents a review of the empirical relations between facial expressions of emotion and personality. Finally, the chapter discusses the role personality-related facial expressions may play in the social lives of people across the life course.

Emotion is viewed as a biologically adaptive system that presents people with information about their reactions to situations and that organises them for action. The emotion system integrates information across a variety of information-processing domains and, as such, is the most complex, integrative information-processing system humans possess, providing a constant readout of the person's current state. Emotions and feelings are therefore of central importance in psychotherapy. They need to be brought to awareness in therapy to help improve patients' orientation to the environment and to help them mobilize for action. The importance of affective assessment in therapy is stressed in order to provide the clinician with a framework for intervention and, more specifically, to guide the clinician concerning when to access, bypass, or modify particular emotions. Six therapeutic affective-change processes—acknowledging, creation of meaning, arousal, taking responsibility, modifying, and expression—are discussed as well as the role of emotion in anxiety and depression. The chapter includes a discussion of three types of change events in which a number of affective-change processes operate. In the allowing and accepting of emotion event, patients overcome the avoidance of painful feelings and acknowledge and take responsibility for their feelings. In events involving the completion of interrupted expression, emotion is aroused and expressed and the emotional network is restructured. In the third and final event, accessing core beliefs, emotion is aroused in order to access core organizing beliefs and make them amenable to change.

Divergent theoretical positions on the emergence, functions, and regulation of emotion expressions in infancy are delineated in this chapter. The emotion of anger is used to illustrate the implications of three theoretical perspectives on the onset and significance of a discrete emotion in the life experience of the infant. The study of the capacity to regulate the expression of an emotion is complicated by terminological differences and procedural variations. These problems are illustrated by considering the empirical evidence supporting each of these viewpoints on age-related changes in the infant's fear response to a stranger. Comparing these results yields contradictory findings regarding the age at which the infant no longer shows the fear response. The differential emotions theory holds that each new emotion expression that emerges in infancy is a major determinant of changes in the infant's experience. Each emotion is seen as having a separate, discernible expression and a unique impact on perceptual, cognitive, and social growth.

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on a comprehensive theory of emotion. The concept of emotion has played an extraordinarily varied role in behavioral theories. In psychology, emotions account for the drive and reinforcement mechanisms involved in learning and explain defense processes, addictions, and attachments. Ethology has used emotion to account for aspects of natural selection, while in anthropological, social and clinical study, emotion has been a focus for research on expressive behavior and interpersonal communication. Finally, physiological investigators interested in emotion concentrate on studies of autonomic and central nervous functions. The abundance of all research perspectives may well be the source of the one thing upon which various emotion theorists agree: The concept of emotion is defined poorly and research is fragmented and unintegrated. The chapter provides a provisional model of emotion that is both comprehensive and unified. The chapter discusses the key questions raised by past theories and research to which the new conceptualization is addressed. A limited elaboration of the model, drawing upon empirical findings where available and raising questions for future study is presented. In the absence of an integrated database, the model obviously is general and suggestive rather than specific and quantitative. It hopes that this shortcoming does not minimize its integrative and heuristic value.

Sociobiology is the systematic study of the biological basis of social behavior in humans and animals. This chapter begins to build a sociobiological theory of the emotions. The first section discusses some misconceptions about sociobiology, and compares it to its ancestor, classical ethology. The next section summarizes Darwin's work on facial expression, and the portions of the work of other sociobiologists dealing directly with emotion theory. Other relevant work not specifically mentioning emotion is briefly indicated. The third section uses sociobiology to illuminate some central questions in emotion theory. Each emotion should have an adaptive evolutionary history, which implies that emotions can scientifically be termed either“pathological” or“bad” only in extremely restricted circumstances. The author's views on the interaction between cognition and the emotions is discussed, and it is argued on theoretical grounds that the distinction between emotions and drives may be poorly stated. In the last sections, a sociobiological definition of emotion is developed, and genital plethysmography is suggested as an area where future work could produce objective results of interest to both sociobiologists and emotion theorists.

This chapter outlines a readout model of emotion that assumes that emotion involves an ongoing progress report of the state of primary motivational/ emotional systems located in subcortical and paleocortical systems in the brain. The independent evolution of three kinds of readout systems is considered: readout via autonomic or endocrine systems (Emotion I), spontaneous ritualized displays (Emotion II), and direct subjective experience (Emotion III). The ways in which these different emotional responses are experienced by the child in self and others, and the implications of differences in the accessibility of different responses to the social learning of emotion, are considered. The chapter then considers the course of emotional development and education, first using animal and infant studies to illustrate how communication mechanisms, social experience, and primary motivational/emotional systems have evolved to develop hand-in-hand. This involves discussion of what emotions are innate in humans and the developmental sequence of their appearance. It then considers the differences in emotion in humans and in animals. Specifically, the relationships between cognitive and emotional development are discussed, as well as the concept of emotional education, which involves the acquisition of knowledge of emotion via experience and instruction. Emotional education involves making different aspects of emotion accessible via the education of attention, and the acquisition of knowledge about the meaning of emotional behaviors. It is suggested that the quality of this emotional education may have important personal and social implications.

Emotion and affect are considered in terms of a general theory of information integration, which embodies a functional, goal-directed perspective. From this perspective, emotion and affect are considered information, with biosocial functions of guiding thought and action. The basic theme of information integration reflects the theoretical focus on studying how thought and action are constructed through joint action of multiple determinants. This integration theme makes it axiomatic that nonaffective, cognitive determinants are fundamental in emotion. This theme also leads to a distinction between unconscious and conscious emotion. Integration theory is not a promissory principle, but a working reality, for integration has been found to follow exact algebraic rules in diverse domains. This cognitive algebra provides a new approach to emotion theory. It allows fractionation of emotion into affective and nonaffective determinants. It allows measurement of both conscious and unconscious emotion on true psychological scales. And it is useful for analysis of certain problems of attention, memory, inference, and decision. Empirical applications are discussed for phobias, recognizing emotion, social affect, pain, and cerebral organization.

This chapter is about self-report questionnaires, rating scales, behavioral or physiological indexes, and other measures of emotion that rely, directly or indirectly, on such everyday English words as anger, fear, happiness, anxiety , or stress . These measures are typically constructed and interpreted on the assumption that people use each such word as if it were independent of all other emotion words that are not its synonym. Considerable evidence suggests otherwise: people use emotion words as it they were highly and systematically interrelated. Interpretation of any measure that relies on emotion words requires that we take these interrelationships into account. The key is to realize that saying someone is, for example, anxious is not independent of saying that he or she is happy, sad , etc. Implications of this thesis are discussed for topics such as the use of mood questionnaires in a psychological clinic, research on the causes and consequences of emotion, research on the meaning of facial expressions, and theories of emotion in which labeling is thought to play a central role.