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There are significant differences in duration and intensity of clinical neurophysiology specialty training within the countries of the Europe, Middle East and Africa Chapter of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. We address these differences by proposing recommendations which may facilitate harmonisation of training and education within the Chapter. They arose from two workshops whose recommendations were then circulated widely within national societies in the Chapter for feedback and for consensus. The recommendations are applicable to clinical neurophysiology as a medical monospecialty and/or as a subspecialty (usually of neurology). We make a number of recommendations on governance and regulation of training, on the requirements for competence and the numbers of various examinations and tests performed by trainees, some under supervision. We also recommend a modular approach considering primary and complementary modules. Primary modules are electroencephalography, electromyography, nerve conduction studies and evoked potentials, while complementary ones include sleep analysis, intraoperative monitoring, small fibre testing, peripheral nerve and muscle ultrasound, intracortical recordings, and analysis of movement disorders. It is recommended that national examinations should include a variety of techniques to assess knowledge and judgement, practical skills, teamwork, communication skills, as well as safety and quality. The aim of the suggested recommendations is to harmonize clinical neurophysiology training in the member societies throughout the Chapter. It is realised that this may mean that the numbers for competence are aspirational for some, though ways to mitigate this, for instance through supranational training centres, are also discussed., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. All rights reserved.)

This publication represents the first to report global information on characteristics and requirements of doctoral programs in the pharmaceutical sciences in schools/colleges of Pharmacy. Survey responses (140 responses) were received from doctoral programs in 23 countries, with the greatest number of responses obtained from Japan, followed by India and the United States. Program characteristics and requirements, and student and faculty information, including graduate placement, in programs in Asia, North America, Europe, Africa and Australia were compared. Survey responses indicated differences in entrance requirements for doctoral programs with minimum requirements being a bachelor's degree, pharmacy degree or master's degree, including a M.Phil. degree. Programs differed widely in size in all geographical areas, but there was a similar emphasis on core educational learning outcomes (core competencies) and Ph.D. graduation requirements including qualifying examinations, thesis defense with internal and external reviewers and requirements for peer-reviewed publications. Additionally, three-quarters of programs indicated that there was external review of their programs every 2-4 or 5-7 years. Female students and female faculty mentors represented about 50% of students/faculty in programs in most geographical areas. Placement of students after graduation indicated that the highest percentage went into the pharmaceutical industry in Asia (predominantly India) and North America, with a lower percentage in Europe, Africa and Australia., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 American Pharmacists Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Information on master's programs in the pharmaceutical sciences is lacking; this manuscript addresses this gap in the literature, by reporting on the results of an international survey performed in 2021 of master's programs in the pharmaceutical sciences offered at Schools/Colleges of Pharmacy. Ninety-six responses were received from universities from 23 countries, with the greatest number of responses obtained from India, followed by the United States and Japan. Master's programs in the pharmaceutical sciences are generally full time and 2 years in duration. Only 3% of programs were reported to be examination-based, while the remaining 97% had a research component with 70% of programs having a thesis defense with external and/or internal examiners. Master's programs tended to be larger in Asia and Europe than in North America; as well, programs in North America tended to have more international students. Didactic coursework was included in 96% of master's programs in North America, but only in 38% of Asian and 58% of European programs. The predominant placement of graduates from master's programs in Asia was in the pharmaceutical industry (70%); this contrasted with programs in Europe, Africa and North America where 28-36% enter careers in the pharmaceutical industry and higher percentages enter Ph.D. programs. The major challenge identified by programs was funding of faculty and of graduate students, although decreasing career opportunities was identified as a challenge in Asia and Africa., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 American Pharmacists Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Floral nectar harbors microbial communities which have significant impacts on its chemistry, volatiles, nutritional contents, and attractiveness for pollinators. Yet, fundamental knowledge regarding the structure and composition of nectar-associated microbiomes remains largely unknown. Especially elusive are the environmental factors and spatial effects that shape nectar-inhabiting microbial communities. The aim of this study was to explore and analyze the role of geographical and environmental factors affecting the composition and global distribution of floral nectar microbiota. We explored and compared the structure of bacterial communities inhabiting the floral nectar of the widely spread and invasive tobacco tree (Nicotiana glauca) in six continents: South and North America, Australia, Europe, Africa, and Asia, using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Environmental abiotic data for each sampled plant was obtained from the Worldclim database and applied for inferring the effects of environmental conditions on bacterial community structure and diversity. Most abundant in the nectar were the Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria phyla, with Acinetobacter and Rosenbergiella (Proteobacteria) being the dominant bacterial genera that contributed most to the dissimilarities between sites. Acinetobacter and Rosenbergiella abundances were negatively correlated and significantly higher in the Mediterranean regions (Greece, Israel, and the Canary Islands) compared to Argentina and Australia. Temperature, site-elevation, rainfall, and density of vegetation were found to have significant effects on the structure and diversity of these bacterial communities in the nectar. Vegetation density was positively correlated with microbial diversity, while increased temperatures and elevation reduced the diversity and evenness of bacterial communities. Mantel's test showed that the similarity between the bacterial communities' composition significantly decreased as distances between them increased. We conclude that both geographical distance and local environmental abiotic conditions affect and shape the composition and diversity of nectar inhabiting bacterial communities., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The occurrence and fate of antibiotics and antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) worldwide were reviewed. The prevalence of antibiotics in WWTPs among different periods (1999-2009 and 2010-2019) and geographical areas (Europe, America, Asia and Africa) was summarized, analyzed and evaluated. The classes of macrolides (clarithromycin, erythromycin/erythromycin-H 2 O, azithromycin, roxithromycin), sulfonamides (sulfamethoxazole), trimethoprim, quinolones (ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin) and tetracyclines (tetracycline) were the antibiotics most frequently detected, while bla (bla CTXM , bla TEM ), sul (sul1, sul2), tet (tetO, tetQ, tetW) and ermB genes were the ARGs commonly reported in WWTPs. There was a positive correlation between antibiotics and ARGs commonly detected in WWTPs, except for β-lactam antibiotics and bla genes. The genes bla were found frequently, despite β-lactam antibiotics were seldom detected owing to the hydrolysis. Most of antibiotics had lower levels in the period 2010-2019 in Asian countries than that in period 1999-2009 in North American and European countries. In the effluent of secondary treatment, the concentration of trimethoprim was the highest (138 ng/L in median) and the concentration of other antibiotics remained at lower than 80 ng/L, while the relative abundance of ARGs ranged 2.9-4.6 logs (copies/mL, in median). Future researches on the development of effective antibiotic removal technologies, such as advanced oxidation processes, are suggested to focus on antibiotics frequently detected and their corresponding ARGs in WWTPs., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Persistent organic pollutants (POP) are toxic substances for wildlife and people. The Kemp's Ridley sea turtle Lepidochelys kempii is an endangered species with limited distribution in the Gulf of Mexico (GM), a marine ecosystem that has been perturbed by a variety of anthropogenic activities. In this work, the concentrations of ten organochlorine pesticides (OP), eight polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), and atrazine were determined in the plasma of Kemp's Ridley sea turtles that nest in Playa Rancho Nuevo Sanctuary, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Seventy-nine blood samples were collected from female turtles during the 2015-2016 nesting season. Samples were extracted with a focalized ultrasonic sound technique and analyzed through Gas Chromatography coupled to a Mass Spectrometer. POP with the highest percentage of detection were atrazine > PCB 52 > PCB 153 > DDE > alpha endosulfan > DDD > alpha HCH > DDT. There is no linear correlation between the detected POP levels in the Kemp's Ridley sea turtle plasma and its curve carapace length (CCL). When comparing 2015 and 2016 POP concentrations, there were statistically significant differences in atrazine (p < 0.05, R 2  = 0.069), PCB 52 (p < 0.05, R 2  = 0.0051) and ∑POP (p < 0.05, R 2  = 0.0001) and, no statistically significant differences in alpha endosulfan (p < 0.05, R 2  = 0.0294), DDE (p < 0.05, R 2  = 0.0315) and PCB 153 (p < 0.05, R 2  = 0.0036). The reported POP values of this work are one of the few registered for Kemp's Ridley sea turtle in the GM and the first for atrazine levels. These levels were higher than those reported for other sea turtle species from America, Africa, and Europe, which demonstrates a deteriorated health status of the GM marine ecosystem., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Traumatic spinal injury (TSI) is a global health issue contributing to morbidity and mortality, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The aim of this study is to compare the epidemiological estimates of TSI with the corresponding amount of published papers for different regions., Methods: A bibliometric analysis was performed by collecting the number of publications concerning TSI from the PubMed database. Results were sorted according to the different geographical World Health Organization regions. A "publication-to-volume ratio" was obtained by comparing the average number of documents per year with the number of TSI cases across each region., Results: A total of 2304 articles were detected from 2008 to 2018. The major publishing regions were North America (AMR-US/Can: 843 articles, 36.6%) and Europe (EUR: 833, 36.2%), then Western Pacific (WPR: 410, 17.8%), Eastern Mediterranean (EMR: 73, 3.2%), South-East Asia (SEAR: 71, 3.1%), Latin America (AMR-L: 55, 2.4%), Africa (AFR: 19, 0.8%). The United States is the most publishing country in AMR-US/Can (86.0%), and Germany in EUR (22.4%). In 2018, EUR published 36.6% of papers versus AMR-US/Can 26.5% and WPR 25.7%, thanks to an increase in Chinese publications. The highest publication ratios of 4.63 and 2.68 were found for AMR-US/Can and EUR, respectively. The other were EMR (0.22), WPR (0.18), AMR-L (0.07), SEAR (0.03), and AFR (0.01)., Conclusions: A marked divide is currently found between countries with a high burden of TSI and those where there is most research interest, estimated as amount of publications. Data demonstrate the need for increased inclusiveness in guidelines generation from high-income countries including collection and analysis from low- and middle-income countries., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Kohl is an eye cosmetic that was traditionally used in many Asian and African countries but that is now more widely available. Ingredients of kohl reported in previous studies seem to be rather variable but mention is frequently made of minerals based on Pb whose use in cosmetic products is prohibited in Europe. We purchased 23 products of kohl from retail outlets in five different European countries and over the internet and analysed their chemical composition by XRF and SEM-EDXS. The majority of the products (n = 17) did not conform with European legislation based on the presence of Pb (often as galena), whose concentrations ranged from a few mg kg -1 to over 400000 mg kg -1 . Cadmium, another element prohibited in cosmetic products in Europe, was also present as a contaminant in 13 products at concentrations up to a few hundred mg kg -1 . In addition to heavy metals, minerals of other metals (e.g. Fe and Zn) appeared to be present in the nano-size range and might represent an additional health hazard. Clearly, the lack of quality control in the manufacture of kohl results in the widespread occurrence of toxic and unwanted elements and the trade of illegal products in Europe. In principle, shop sales would be relatively straightforward to prevent, but products traded through internet are more difficult to regulate., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Hundreds of tons of pharmaceutical compounds are annually dispensed and consumed worldwide. Pharmaceuticals are an important class of emerging environmental micropollutants: their presence in water bodies is an increasing environmental concern. The aim of this review paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in freshwater aquatic environments in the African and European context. A literature survey has been performed, resulting in 3024 data points related to environmental occurrence. The concentration levels of 71 pharmaceuticals were assessed. The top ten most frequently detected and quantified compounds in both continents were sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, diclofenac, trimethoprim, ibuprofen, naproxen, paracetamol (acetaminophen), ketoprofen, venlafaxine and clarithromycin. The maximum concentrations of 17β-estradiol, estriol, ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, paracetamol, naproxen reported in African aquatic environments were ~3140, ~20,000, ~125, ~100, ~215 and ~171 times higher, respectively, than the concentrations reported in European based studies. The variation in pharmaceutical consumption, partial removal of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment processes, and the direct discharge of livestock animal farm wastewater were identified among the major reasons for the observed differences. Several pharmaceuticals were found in aquatic environments of both continents in concentration levels higher than their ecotoxicity endpoints. In Europe, compounds such as diclofenac, ibuprofen, triclosan, sulfadimidine, carbamazepine and fluoxetine were reported in a concentration higher than the available ecotoxicity endpoints. In Africa, much more compounds reached concentrations more than the ecotoxicity endpoints, including diclofenac, ibuprofen, paracetamol, naproxen, ciprofloxacin, triclosan, trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine and fluoxetine, estriol and 17β-estradiol. Details for each therapeutic group are presented in this review., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Estimates of a disease's basic reproductive rate R0 play a central role in understanding outbreaks and planning intervention strategies. In many calculations of R0, a simplifying assumption is that different host populations have effectively identical transmission rates. This assumption can lead to an underestimate of the overall uncertainty associated with R0, which, due to the non-linearity of epidemic processes, may result in a mis-estimate of epidemic intensity and miscalculated expenditures associated with public-health interventions. In this paper, we utilize a Bayesian method for quantifying the overall uncertainty arising from differences in population-specific basic reproductive rates. Using this method, we fit spatial and non-spatial susceptible-exposed-infected-recovered (SEIR) models to a series of 13 smallpox outbreaks. Five outbreaks occurred in populations that had been previously exposed to smallpox, while the remaining eight occurred in Native-American populations that were naïve to the disease at the time. The Native-American outbreaks were close in a spatial and temporal sense. Using Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), we show that the best model includes population-specific R0 values. These differences in R0 values may, in part, be due to differences in genetic background, social structure, or food and water availability. As a result of these inter-population differences, the overall uncertainty associated with the "population average" value of smallpox R0 is larger, a finding that can have important consequences for controlling epidemics. In general, Bayesian hierarchical models are able to properly account for the uncertainty associated with multiple epidemics, provide a clearer understanding of variability in epidemic dynamics, and yield a better assessment of the range of potential risks and consequences that decision makers face., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Two major views of human evolution have elicited considerable controversy. These are: [1] the "out of Africa" hypothesis and [2] the "multiregional" hypothesis. This paper is an attempt to try to reconcile these two scenarios using hominid cranial vault data. Elliptical Fourier functions (EFFs) were used to describe, in visual and numerical terms, the shape of the human cranial vault in norma lateralis. Using jpeg images, contours of the cranial vault of a large sample of hominid specimens were pre-processed in Photoshop CS and rotated in 2D space (positional-orientation) so that a line drawn from nasion to porion was horizontal. The cranial vault image was then digitized with 72 closely-spaced points and submitted to a specially written routine that computed EFFs normalized by scaling (size-standardization). This ensured that the representation was invariant with respect to starting point, size and orientation. Statistically significant differences were found between the H. sapiens sample and both the H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis samples. In contrast, there were no statistically significant differences between the H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis groups, leading to three conclusions: [1] the similarity in cranial vault shape between H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis suggests a single gradually evolving lineage; [2] The taxon H. heidelbergensis can be embedded into the H. erectus→H. neanderthalensis line; and [3] H. sapiens seems to be a separate evolutionary development and is considered here either as a separate species or as a possible example of an allopatric semispecies (Grant, 1977). The results here suggest that human evolution over the last 2 Ma may turn out to be neither totally multiregional or simply out of Africa but rather represents a considerably more complicated picture., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Objective: In this paper, we review evidence of HCV prevalence among injecting drug users (IDUs) worldwide., Methods: We undertook a desk-based review of both 'grey' and published literature released between 1998 and 2005., Results: Data on HCV prevalence among IDUs was found in 57 countries and in 152 sub-national areas. We found reports of HCV prevalence of at least 50% among IDUs in 49 countries or territories. Available regional estimates varied widely, from 10 to 96% in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, from 10 to 100% in South and South-East Asia, from 34 to 93% in East-Asia and the Pacific, from 5 to 60% in North Africa and the Middle-East, from 2 to 100% in Latin America, from 8 to 90% in North America, from 25 to 88% in Australia and New Zealand, and from 2 to 93% in Western Europe. Only in Colombia and Lebanon were all HCV prevalence estimates below 20%. In addition, evidence of HIV/HCV co-infection among IDUs was found in 16 countries. In China, Poland, Puerto Rico, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, Thailand and Viet Nam, estimates of the prevalence of HIV/HCV co-infection among IDUs reached 90%., Discussion: Taken together, data suggest high global prevalence of HCV and HIV/HCV co-infection among IDUs. We suggest exploring protective factors in sites of low HCV prevalence.

This paper reports the findings of a worldwide survey of the teaching of glass ionomer (polyalkenoate) cements (GICs). A total of 324 questionnaires was returned from the 650 dental schools included in the study (50 per cent response), with the response ranging from 100 per cent (Australasia) to 4 per cent (USSR). The findings indicate that most primary dental degree students in the majority of countries investigated are presently taught the use of GICs in a wide range of applications using techniques which largely conform with those recommended by the manufacturers of such materials.