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This study analyzes the behavior of storm-scale circulations preceding initial tornadogenesis in 179 Kansas and Nebraska storms. Manually determined assessments of radar data for storm-scale circulations preceding the tornadoes are performed as far back in time prior to the tornado as a circulation is apparent, with average rotational velocity (Vrot), circulation diameter, and circulation clarity documented for the 0.5° elevation scan. These data are simultaneously combined with an indication of environmental conditions (as represented by the significant tornado parameter) to determine the tornado probability at each of these times based on a recently developed probabilistic model. By aggregating these parameters in time-range bins, subsequent statistical analyses portray the bulk variability of circulation characteristics and tornado probabilities preceding tornadogenesis. The blended approach for assessing tornado potential yields a stronger relative increase in tornado probabilities leading up to tornadogenesis than the sub-component of average Vrot; this is especially true within 15 min before tornadogenesis. Additionally, significant tornadoes are associated with more substantial increase in tornado probabilities preceding tornadogenesis compared to weak tornadoes, and smaller lead time to tornadogenesis for weak tornadoes. Also, a cycling pattern may appear in velocities prior to significant tornadoes, along with a relative decrease in pretornadic circulation diameter, especially for significant tornadoes. These findings are intended to highlight some of the behaviors of storm-scale circulations and their corresponding environments, which can be used to reinforce meteorologists' tornado threat assessment. Extending this work to encompass more convectivemode variability, null cases, and geographic expanse will be necessary for more overarching applicability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The occurrence of giant hail, defined as hail ≥102 mm (4.00 in) in diameter, is a relatively rare phenomenon, accounting for <1% of all hail reports in the United States. Despite the infrequent nature of these events, hail of this magnitude has the potential to cause extreme damage to property and a substantial threat to exposed life. The short-term prediction of these events has been challenging. For giant hail since 2005, only 7% of convective warnings and severe-weather statements issued by the National Weather Service (NWS) accurately predicted a maximum hail size ≥102 mm prior to the report, with an average underestimated size error of 55.6 mm (2.19 in). The objectives of this study are to determine the detectability of giant hail in convective storms and to improve advanced recognition of these events during NWS warning operations. A total of 568 giant-hail reports, gathered over a 15-y period from 1 January 1995 through 31 December 2009 throughout the contiguous United States, served as the primary database for the research. Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) data and North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) environmental data were collected for each case. Several radar signatures were examined to assess their utility in discriminating storms most favorable for giant hail. It was found that 99% of the storms were supercells with well-organized structure. Giant-hail producing storms were characterized by median values of rotational velocities of 24 m s-1 (47 kt), storm-top divergence magnitudes of 72 m s-1 (140 kt), and 50-dBZ and 60-dBZ echo heights of 13 100 m (43 000 ft) and 10 600 m (34 800 ft) respectively. Vertically integrated liquid water (VIL)-based products, maximum reflectivity within the storm, and reflectivity within the preferred hail-growth zone showed little to no skill in discriminating between giant hail and smaller hail sizes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]