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Swim-with-whales tourism has become a growing aspect of the marine mammal tourism scene. Several remote island destinations allow for these in-water experiences. Understanding swim-with-whales tourists’ motivations is an important aspect to effectively promoting and managing these interactions. This paper focuses on tourist motivations for swimming with humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Niue. A qualitative research approach using 21 semi-structured in-depth interviews was used to gain these. A thematic approach to understanding the data identified eight themes that describe intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in these whale-swim participants. Of particular interest was the emotional component of engaging in the activity. In contrast to other research on marine wildlife tourism motivations, the importance of learning was absent in this study. These findings highlight the personal and variable nature of individual motivations for participating in commercial whale-swims.

International audience; This entry in the Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing provide a accessible definition of the "ski resorts" term with 8 references and 1 figure. The definition highlights the specificities of ski resorts in the ski industry and shows their operation and governance. The definition also stresses the current issues on ski resorts.We thank E.George and H.François from INRAE at Grenoble (France) for their participation.; Cette entrée dans Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing fournit une définition accessible du terme "stations de ski" avec 8 références et 1 figure. La définition met en évidence les spécificités des stations de ski dans l'industrie du ski et montre leur fonctionnement et leur gouvernance. La définition souligne également les enjeux actuels des stations de ski.Nous remercions E.George et H.François de l'INRAE à Grenoble (France) pour leur participation.

The absence of extended discussions about the feasibility of carrying out qualitative research within the ‘research methods’ sections of most heritage and mainstream museum studies articles means there is not much direction provided to novice heritage and museum researchers as well as aspiring PhD candidates to augment their own methodological practices. Literature related to unexpected circumstances during fieldwork, the importance of human interactions in data collection and the self-reflection of researchers in heritage and museum-related research remains limited. This paper reflectively explores aspects of the author’s journey as a PhD researcher at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, Egypt, and the challenges encountered during fieldwork. The paper concludes that recognizing and encouraging reflexivity and interpersonal engagement and reflecting on challenging moments during the research process in museums and heritage sites brings insight to the study, and brings the researcher/researchee closer to the reader.

The purpose of this research note was to examine managers’ perspectives on employee wellbeing in the foodservice industry. Particularly, this study conducted 14 semi-structured individual interviews with upper-level managers of various organizations within the foodservice industry. Thematic analyses were employed to analyze the data. The overall findings addressed the essence of considering employee wellbeing in the industry. Particularly, this study revealed managers’ interpretation of employee wellbeing, identified major influences on employee wellbeing, reported the current measures, and presented the major challenges facing most organizations regarding improving employee wellbeing. From a theoretical point of view, this study used a qualitative approach and reflected managers’ perspectives on the concept of employee wellbeing. Building on those findings, this study provides practical implications, which mainly involves using a forward-thinking, top-down approach to enhance employee wellbeing, and highlights the roles of organizational support and organizational culture. Based on the findings, this study also discusses future research directions and limitations.

The global COVID-19 health pandemic has shaken the most stable political systems, and left deep economic scars across industries. With global and national travel at a standstill, the tourism industry is among the most heavily hit. The gradual lifting of restrictions has already fuelled tourism demand, and previous hopes of rebuilding and transforming tourism more sustainably are vanishing. To ensure that pre-COVID-19 situations of unsustainable development do not resurface, it is of critical importance to go beyond economically driven crisis recovery. Instead, governments need to reconsider pre-crisis challenges, such as imbalances between tourists and residents, infrastructure shortages, and questions around the efficiency of regulations and policies. In New Zealand, issues related to freedom camping have fuelled these debates, with headlines relating to tourists defecating in public space, dropping garbage, and being ‘freeloaders’ with little economic value. Adopting a multiple stakeholder approach, this research note empirically explores stakeholder perceptions of challenges associated with freedom camping in the context of New Zealand. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 stakeholders representing host communities, local councils, national agencies, tourism businesses, and regional tourism organisations. Qualitative data analysis reveals positive changes and reduced impacts as results of additional infrastructure funding, educational measures, and locally enforced bylaws. However, participants also noted the need for a national framework, and clear statements and messages regarding domestic demand. Considering that nature-based experiences that allow for social distancing, such as (freedom) camping, have grown significantly during the pandemic and that domestic tourists will be crucial to post-COVID tourism recovery, this original multiple stakeholder approach delivers policy-relevant insights and provides avenues for future research with regard to a responsible and sustainable tourism restart.

While peer-to-peer accommodation research is increasingly cognizant of various stakeholders impacted by the rising popularity of this disruptive phenomenon, one stakeholder remains understudied – the host. This study uses a Deductive Qualitative Analysis to explore a tripartite of peer-to-peer accommodation host identities (entrepreneurial identity, residential identity, and sustainable entrepreneur identity) within the US City of Savannah, Georgia. Peer-to-peer accommodation hosts are agents of change in the communities in which they operate. This study posits that their impacts, whether positive or negative, on communities in which they operate depend on the existence of these identities. Potential opportunities for collaboration between hosts and local municipalities are discussed in light of the proposed identity framework.

Engagement of stakeholders in the research process provides valuable insights around tourism issues yet can be fraught with challenges. Ketso is a toolkit that can help overcome these barriers to facilitate stakeholder inclusion and collaboration. Drawing on a study into accessibility and tourism, this paper provides critical reflections on the potential of Ketso as a qualitative method in bringing together diverse stakeholders for inclusive dialogue around social change. Ketso can develop opportunities for change in the tourism system by making the absences of knowledge and assumptions in the worldviews of powerful tourism stakeholders apparent. Our analysis revealed how Ketso enabled inclusive collaboration to engender both tacit and wider community stakeholder knowledge, building capacity for co-created solutions to make tourism more accessible (barrier-free) for travellers with disabilities.

With an increase in tourists originating from Asia, the geographies of tourism have changed considerably in recent decades. Arguably, however, tourism scholarship remains largely Western-centric. In this research note, we focus on one particular area of tourism scholarship where Western-centrism may be especially problematic: tourist culture. As part of this, we draw on a case study of ‘lifestyle travel’ to illustrate the need for more inclusive, diverse and non-Western-centric (auto)ethnographic/(auto)biographical studies in tourist culture scholarship. In so doing, we argue that such studies may be especially useful for capturing the stories of ‘Others’, thus helping to broaden our knowledge base in light of tourism’s shifting geographies.

Livelihoods in rural Southeast Asia are widely divergent, but often characterized by a reduced role for agriculture and local natural resources. The diverse components of an expanding tourism industry can provide opportunities for rural households seeking more diversified livelihood strategies. Artisans Angkor is a tourism social enterprise employing over 800 artisans in rural Cambodia. This study analysed the benefits of formal employment with Artisans Angkor by studying one village where six long-term Artisans Angkor employees lived, and comparing their situations with those of their direct peers. While income levels were often similar, significant benefits related to safe working conditions, social insurance and above all enabling young households to live together at home. This study provides insights into how qualitative research can contribute contextualized understandings of tourism employment’s livelihood effects.

Destination marketing organisations (DMOs) seek to provide positive pre-travel online destination experiences (ODEs) to attract tourists. Thereby, DMOs understand official destination websites (ODWs) as central sources of information influencing tourists’ travel decisions. Although experiential marketing theory postulates that customers are reached through sensory, affective, intellectual, behavioural or social experiences, this theory has rarely been applied to analysing tourist experiences on ODWs. Past research and theories remain similar to models from product brands, yet fail to acknowledge the peculiarities of destination experiences. This research explores how users of ODWs experience unfamiliar tourist destinations in the pre-travel phase. To gain a deeper understanding of the nature of ODEs on ODWs, a qualitative multi-method study was conducted involving eye-tracking, retrospective think-aloud protocols, semi-structured interviews and video observations with 15 German millen­nials selected via purposeful sampling. Data was analysed in a qualitative directed content analysis following an abductive approach. Findings expand on previous theory by adding a spatio-temporal experience dimension. In the pre-travel phase, potential tourists explore the spatio-temporal accessibility of expected experiences and the experience density in the destin­ation. Furthermore, this research provides new insights into the different dimensions of ODEs and proposes an advanced conceptual framework.

The aim of this paper is to introduce videography as a valuable approach for collecting data, supporting theory-building and disseminating results in tourism research. Visual research is a powerful approach that has been intensively used in the main field of consumer research but surprisingly less often in a tourism context. However, most tourist behaviours and experiences are ‘bright and noisy’ and cannot be fully translated by written productions. This is why we present videography as a research tool in its own right, opening new dimensions to qualitative research. This article aims to discuss the advantages and limitations of video and demonstrates why it is worthwhile to tourism studies. It also explains the steps involved in the production of a video and illustrated by a 20-minute video on tourist souvenirs.

In recent years more and more tourist information boards have been put up on German motorways. Little research exists with regard to the effects of these information boards. A qualitative research approach was used and 29 semi-structured interviews were conducted to increase knowledge about the relationships between tourist information boards and related tourism behaviour. A model was developed which integrates the elements perception of tourist motorway signage, its memory effects and tourism decision-making processes. Findings suggest that spontaneous driving off the motorway is rarely found and points of interest are more likely to be visited after the trip or used as travel inspiration. This study shows for the first time that tourist information boards can play an important role in tourism decision-making processes and resulting behaviours.

Temporality is increasingly being recognised as an important dimension of tourist experience. Qualitative longitudinal research (QLR) is a methodology for investigating temporality and change that is rarely used in tourism studies. The approach moves away from reliance on data collected at one point in time and retrospective narratives. Instead, data are generated at multiple points in time, thus capturing experience in the present moment. I situate QLR alongside lifecourse and biographical research in order to show how it can extend existing qualitative enquiry into tourists’ subjective temporal experiences and biographical narratives. ‘Intensive’ and ‘extensive’ QLR designs are delineated and connected to potential applications in qualitative tourism research. Additionally, conceptual clarification is provided regarding use of the terms ‘longitudinal’ and ‘temporal’, which have frequently been a source of confusion. I conclude that QLR has significant potential to advance our understanding of tourist experience, motivation and transformation.

This research note addresses the difficulties in acquiring interview partners within the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft-funded project ‘Neighbourhood in the tourist trap? An examination on the changing residential quality through tourist accommodation in selected Berlin residential neighbourhoods’. The research project is analysing to what extent the quality of residential areas has changed as a result of tourist accommodation through a mixed-method approach. In order to ensure a differentiated database, one aim of the project was to interview residents with different durations of residency and educational levels, and to take into account the high density of people with a migration background in Berlin. Since Berliners of Turkish origin represent the largest group of people with a migration background in Berlin, it was in the interest of the research to make this group’s views visible and voices heard. In the research note we focus on the acquisition of Turkish Berliners and reflect on the question of why establishing contacts with Turkish Berliners was especially challenging. In order to answer this question, some hypotheses on non-response conduct will be sketched from which we draw our conclusions of an alteration of acquisition within the field of New Urban Tourism in Berlin.

This chapter reviews the recent trend of pan-African banks presence in the WAEMU region. The proportion of foreign banks grew from 63% in 2000 to 79.5% in 2017 abd the share of cross-border pan-African banks rose from 29% in 2000 to 62% in 2017. The ownership structure of the banking sector is changing fast, implying changes in the structure of the banking sector in terms of competition, lending and stability. This chapter shows how the increasing cross-border pan-African banks activities in the region’s countries has improved competition within the banking sector, while at the same time, it has increased access to bank loans. The current rise of pan-African banks has different policy implications. This trend can be sustained by investing in new technologies which enable banks to go digital. Policy makers and regulators should also be sensitive to the need to promote the use of new technologies which are necessary to improve the efficiency of pan-African banks and to reduce intermediation costs.

The main purpose of the interbank market is to redistribute liquidity in the financial system. However, the smoothing functioning of the market can be hampered by uncertainty during market distress, accentuated by the complexity of financial linkages. This chapter is inspired by the fact that interbank markets in their early stage of development are noticeably understudied. Using a unique daily transaction-level data set, spanning between 2003 and 2012, the chapter shows that Kenya's interbank market has become more closely interconnected with increasing network size and connectedness from 2006 to late 2009. This has coincided with a series of liquidity shocks that have affected liquidity demand in Kenya's banking sector. During liquidity shocks, large, foreign and listed banks have not only increased their importance in the network as borrowers but also formed a higher density of connections in the direct neighbourhood as borrowers. Consistent with the literature, this study suggests that with increased uncertainty and heightened asymmetric information, it is easier for more reputable banks to satisfy credit profiling by other banks and get access to liquidity. Such an incomplete interbank market structure, coupled with a high degree of interconnectedness, can facilitate the spread of liquidity shocks. Indeed, the regression models used in this chapter capture important heterogeneous relationships between topological measures and bank liquidity access during different liquidity shocks.

Financial inclusion and financial development are now evident in the African countries that have embraced digital financial services and diverse products being introduced in the market. Recent data show that most Africa economies are improving their financial inclusion strands as well as supporting strong banks with huge deposits that allow them future capacity to grow, intermediate and innovate. To foster and sustain financial sector development and financial inclusion in Africa, several policy and institutional reforms are required to be addressed. These include effective regulation, an enabling and innovative regulatory environment and robust consumer protection regulations, need to address the key enablers of mobile and internet connectivity, interoperability of retail electronic payments platforms, market conduct and competition are challenges that require feasible solutions, improvement in the identity system (electronic-ID system) to cope with market innovations and secure the market, need to fine tune policies to reduce the financial exclusion of women and youths and need for the African governments to support the development of the capital markets to enhance intra-Africa trade, and increase investment opportunities for both domestic and foreign investors.

The central theme of this chapter is a wide range of public policy measures and regulation that can contribute to minimising the various barriers to financial inclusion. However, to be effective these need to be set within the context of the wider regulatory regime encompassing the core components of systemic stability, the safety and soundness of financial institutions, and conduct of business regulation for consumer protection. As trust and confidence in financial institutions and the financial system are needed if financial inclusion is to be enhanced, a holistic approach is required, and specific measures designed to enhance financial inclusion need to be regarded as part of the overall regulatory regime.

We have analyzed whether formal and informal finance are substitutes or complements, using hand-collected survey data on the use of formal and informal finance of 177 Chilean farmers producing fruits and vegetables for the years 2005-2006 and 2007-2008. Our data reveal that formal bank loans are the most important source of external finance. Yet, a substantial part of the farmers (48 per cent) also uses trade financing. We find evidence suggesting that access to bank loans and the use of trade finance are negatively associated. This relationship is strongest for trade credit. For advanced payments we are unable to find statistically significant evidence for a such a relationship. Our findings may hold lessons for policies focusing on developing domestic financial markets. Increasing access to bank loans may not reduce, let alone abolish the use of informal sources of finance. Formal and informal finance remain being important and needed to improve the performance of entrepreneurship. Although we did not explicitly investigate this, formal and informal finance may partly finance different activities. Yet, if access to formal finance is not sufficient, borrowers may revert to informal finance to fill the gap.

This insightful book examines the impact of two competing visions of Asian-Pacific economic growth paths and development governance. It discusses law, development and finance in the context of the Indo-Pacific Strategy versus the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), whilst also comparing parallel development financing systems.

Myanmar's mango export industry depends disproportionately on China. By comparing the country's supply chain for export to China with that for export to Singapore, this chapter elucidates the obstacles that prevent diversification of export destinations. Major findings from interviews with key informants and analyses of the secondary data are as follows; First, the fruits exported to Singapore are interchangeable with those exported to China. Second, these countries' sanitary and phytosanitary measures do not bottleneck imports from Myanmar. Third, notable differences are evident between the supply chains with respect to the post-harvest handling of fruits, particularly sorting and grading, treatment for pest and disease control, and logistics management. On the whole, these findings suggest that a shortage of firms orchestrating the post-harvest management inhibits growth of export to Singapore. By contrast, for exports to China, the wholesale market in the borderland compensate for lack of coordinating firms. Myanmar's trade policies, which discourage foreign investment in the trade of fresh fruits, call for further consideration.

Watermelon is grown during the post-monsoon season in the northern provinces of Laos and exported into China, where it fills the demand for counter-seasonal fruits. Compared to neighbouring Myanmar and Vietnam, Laotian watermelon production for the Chinese market is minor. However, watermelon has become important as an off-season crop for rural farmers living near the Chinese border because it generates relatively higher revenues than alternatives. Ethnic ties to the rural population on the Chinese side of the border stimulated contract farming, which paved the way for the spread of this cash crop. However, the scarcity of lowland plains coupled with replant failure in watermelon cultivation severely constrains its growth.

Mainland Southeast Asia is becoming a more important source location for China’s increasing appetite for fresh fruits. This is leading to significant transformations in key sites for fresh fruit production. This chapter sets out the background contexts for this issue and proposes a framework to understand these transformations. It argues that the value chains that are evolving to service this trade present distinctive differences from those that have evolved to provide fresh fruit exports in markets of the global North, because of unique characteristics in the Chinese market. These differences are manifested in (1) highly selective geographical incorporation of mainland Southeast Asian fresh fruit industries into the orbit of Chinese demand because of the complex bilateral trade rules and institutional arrangements for trade, and (2) greater pluralism in chain governance with, in particular, power and control being exercised more prominently by mid-chain actors including Chinese traders and brokers.

In the past five years, exports of Thai durian have been increasing consistently, dominating the Chinese market. In this study, key informant interviews and analyses of the secondary data revealed changes that affect durian exports, including increasing Chinese demand, the emergence of new durian planting areas, the expansion of the processed durian market, and transportation improvements in Mekong region countries. The empirical analysis also demonstrated that Chinese entrepreneurs have expanded their roles in the value chain to replace Thai entrepreneurs. Although farmers and packing plants may presently benefit from the increasing export volume of durian, concerns arise about the total value capture of the entirety of Thai stakeholders.

This chapter discusses the international development strategies of Latin American economies after the 2008 Global Financial Crisis (GFC). We argue that mainstream theories developed their propositions on the basis of Global Value Chains (GVC) and free international trade that, we consider, highly restrictive for these economies’ growth and development.The major break out of these developments are that after the 2008 GFC some advanced countries moved towards protectionist policies in order to limit GVCs and international trade; while LA economies, outstandingly Brazil, did not modify their position following uncritically the same international integration in relation to GVCs.In this context, we discuss the economic and financial development in relation to the international integration in the context of the global capital dynamics after GFC. We argue that developing economies, particularly the Brazilian economy experience has a subordinated character in the international financial sphere. This character has shaped its international integration.

Latin America receives large flows of foreign direct investment each year, as do other developing countries, but it has not generated the expected macroeconomic effects. This reality generates a broad debate on the effectiveness of foreign direct investment in Latin America, as Growth and development conditions have stagnated in the region. The objective of this chapter is to examine the effectiveness of foreign direct investment on economic Growth and development in Latin America during the period 1996-2017. The methodology used is panel data with long N and T to measure the relationship between capital movements and economic Growth and its relationship with human development in Latin America. To this end, two econometric models are presented, one model to determine the relationship of foreign direct investment with economic Growth, and another model to determine the relationship of foreign direct investment with development, both developed under the same technical criteria. The results, under the premise that Growth is not the same as development, show that foreign direct investment contributes positively to economic Growth as measured by variations in GDP. Simultaneously, money flows sent abroad captured from the balance of net income in the balance of payments sent abroad negatively affect human development.

In December of 2015 Mauricio Macri took office as President of Argentina after 12 consecutive years of kirchnerismo. In a 180-degree policy shift, the Macri administration implemented a broad range of liberalization and deregulation policies. This resulted in a significant foreign exchange shortage and massive accumulation of external debt as the only compensating alternative in the chosen policy framework. Argentina’s insertion into the global finance and trade system as a dependent periphery nation, whose main sources of foreign exchange are primary exports or debt, imposes serious restrictions on its policy space. Not taking foreign exchange restrictions seriously and implementing the standard orthodox policy package results in crisis and economic paralysis as Macri’s four years in office patently show. In this chapter use a framework based on the insights from the currency hierarchy bibliography to analyse the theoretical restrictions of Argentina’s periphery status. We specifically examine the main policy changes implemented by the Macri administration, followed by an analysis of the empirical results of these policy changes in section. The chapter concludes that the resulting foreign exchange and debt crises which unfolded were the inevitable consequences of the polices implemented.

This chapter analyses the dividend distribution of multinational banks that operate in six selected Latin America countries, namely Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. Bank level data containing various activities of foreign subsidiaries that operate in the six countries for the period 2013-19, is used for this intent. The findings suggest that Mexico and Peru have the highest foreign bank participation. However, foreign banks in Brazil, Chile and Mexico have made higher dividend payments to the shareholders of their parent banks. This also holds when looking at dividend payments in relation to their earnings. This suggests that a large share of earnings leave the countries in which they operate in the form of dividend payments rather than being reinvested. Furthermore, this chapter argues that macroeconomic conditions in host countries could help explain the dividend repartition of foreign banks.

This chapter discuss the impact of international capital movements on non-financial corporations, analysing the volume and composition of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and highlighting its effects on Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) economies and the organisation of non-financial corporations originated in the region (termed multilatinas), in order to compare overcapitalisation practices with those of multinationals based in developed countries. We show that multilatinas’ overcapitalisation practices rely on variety of forms that have transformed their growth and indebtedness strategy in such way, producing a falling tendency on fixed investment, and a mix up between falling profits and deterioration of solvency indicators, this situation bounds the continuity of this particular trend of multilatinas´ overcapitalisation process.

This chapter examines the relationship between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and levels of income inequality. It focuses on the period following the Great Recession to understand the role of changing institutional set up in the global financial sector and the world economy after the 2007 crisis. A quantitative analysis of a panel of developed and developing countries is undertaken, investigating trends in income inequality, balance of payments, and the outflows and inflows of FDI over time. The analysis considers measures of both within-country and between-country income inequality, paying explicit attention to regional differences in the analysed phenomena. The quantitative study in the chapter is interpreted through the lens of a textual analysis of the institutional changes in the global economy after the 2007 crisis and in the wake of the COVID19 pandemic

This chapter presents a multidimensional vision of the effects of multinational corporations in the process of capital accumulation in the Colombian economy. First, the vision of the post-Keynesian firm is developed concerning the behavior of the multinational corporation by introducing the financing of the firm in foreign currency and the corruption expenses as a factor that facilitates the operation of the firm in the host country. Then, Robinson´s theory of growth ages is incorporated in order to approach the historic patterns of capital accumulation and distribution in Colombia in the context of the recent phase of trade and financial globalization. The two approaches verify that Colombia´s rates of growth and accumulation have been affected negatively by the presence of the multinational corporations. Likewise, along with the deterioration of economic conditions multinational corporations have fueled the political conflict.

This chapter reviews the terms of engagement of foreign and domestic pension funds in the domestic financial markets of emerging economies. Given their longer-time horizon, pension funds are expected to contribute positively to the development of large and deep domestic local currency bonds markets, and hence ease fiscal and external constraints in these countries. However, previous research shows that this is not necessarily always the case. In the case of foreign pension funds, the funds embeddedness in a hierarchic and structured international financial and monetary system might maintain external vulnerability and financial market instability. On the other hand, the development of domestic pension funds might promote destabilising financial sector developments, which weigh on productive investment and structural change. This chapter provides a comprehensive discussion of these respective costs and benefits of growing pension fund investments in emerging economies. It concludes by linking the discussion to the wider question of how best to provide long-term finance for productive structural change without the creation of destabilising financial sector developments, drawing out the suggestion that the state itself must be part of the answer.