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A large fraction of observed protoplanetary disks in nearby Star-Forming Regions (SFRs) are fainter than expected in CO isotopologue emission. Disks not detected in 13CO line emission are also faint and often unresolved in the continuum emission at an angular resolution of around 0.2 arcseconds. Focusing on the Lupus SFR, the aim of this work is to investigate whether the population of CO-faint disks comprises radially extended and low mass disks - as commonly assumed so far - or if it is of intrinsically radially compact disks, an interpretation that we propose in this paper. The latter scenario was already proposed for individual sources or small samples of disks, while this work targets a large population of disks in a single SFR for which statistical arguments can be made. A new grid of physical-chemical models of compact disks has been run with DALI in order to cover a region of the parameter space that had not been explored before with this code. Such models have been compared with 12CO and 13CO ALMA observations of faint disks in Lupus. Disks that are not detected in 13CO emission and with faint or undetected 12CO emission are consistent with compact disk models. For radially compact disk, the emission of CO isotopologues is mostly optically thick and it scales with the surface area: i.e., it is fainter for smaller objects. The fraction of compact disks is potentially between roughly 50% and 60% of the entire Lupus sample. Deeper observations of 12CO and 13CO at a moderate angular resolution will allow us to distinguish whether faint disks are intrinsically compact, or if they are extended but faint, without the need of resolving them. If the fainter end of the disk population observed by ALMA disk surveys is consistent with such objects being very compact, this will either create a tension with viscous spreading or require MHD winds or external processes to truncate the disks., Comment: 10 pages, 3 main figures, 3 appendix figures. Accepted to A&A

The extent of the gas in protoplanetary disks is observed to be universally larger than the extent of the dust. This is often attributed to radial drift and grain growth of the mm grains, but line optical depth produces a similar observational signature. We investigate in what parts of the disk structure parameter space dust evolution and line optical depth are the dominant drivers of the observed gas and dust size difference. Using the thermochemical model DALI with dust evolution included we ran a grid of models aimed at reproducing the observed gas and dust size dichotomy. The relation between R_dust and dust evolution is non-monotonic and depends on the disk structure. R_gas is directly related to the radius where the CO column density drops below 10^15 cm^-2 and CO becomes photodissociated. R_gas is not affected by dust evolution but scales with the total CO content of the disk. R_gas/R_dust > 4 is a clear sign for dust evolution and radial drift in disks, but these cases are rare in current observations. For disks with a smaller R_gas/R_dust, identifying dust evolution from R_gas/R_dust requires modelling the disk structure including the total CO content. To minimize the uncertainties due to observational factors requires FWHM_beam < 1x the characteristic radius and a peak SNR > 10 on the 12CO emission moment zero map. For the dust outer radius to enclose most of the disk mass, it should be defined using a high fraction (90-95%) of the total flux. For the gas, any radius enclosing > 60% of the 12CO flux will contain most of the disk mass. To distinguish radial drift and grain growth from line optical depth effects based on size ratios requires disks to be observed at high enough angular resolution and the disk structure should to be modelled to account for the total CO content of the disk., 18 pages, 27 figures, accepted in A&A

Water is a key molecule for tracing physical and chemical processes in star-forming regions. The key program “Water in star-forming regions with Herschel ” is observing several water transitions towards low-mass protostars with HIFI. Results regarding the 557 GHz transition of water are reported here showing that the line is surprisingly broad, and consists of several different velocity components. The bulk of the emission comes from shocks, where the abundance is increased by several orders of magnitude to ~10 -4 . The abundance of water in the outer envelope is determined to ~10 -8 , whereas only an upper limit of 10 -5 is derived for the inner, warm envelope.

Molecules containing one or a few hydrogen atoms and a heavier atom (hydrides) have been predicted to trace FUV radiation. In some chemical models, FUV emission by the central object or protostar of a star forming region greatly enhances some of the hydride abundances. Two massive regions, W3 IRS5 and AFGL 2591, have been observed in hydride lines by HIFI onboard the {\it Herschel Space Observatory}. We use published results as well as new observations of CH$^+$ towards W3 IRS5. Molecular column densities are derived from ground state absorption lines, radiative transfer modeling or rotational diagrams. Models assuming no internal FUV are compared with two-dimensional models including FUV irradiation of outflow walls. We confirm that the effect of FUV is clearly noticeable and greatly improves the fit. The most sensitive molecules to FUV irradiation are CH$^+$ and OH$^+$, enhanced in abundance by many orders of magnitude. Modeling in addition also full line radiative transfer, Bruderer et al (2010b) achieve good agreement of a two-dimensional FUV model with observations of CH$^+$ in AFGL 2591. It is concluded that CH$^+$ and OH$^+$ are good FUV tracers in star-forming regions., EAS Publications Series, 5th Zermatt conference on Conditions and impact of star formation: New results with Herschel and beyond (invited), submitted

The paper presents new high angular resolution ALMA 1.3 mm dust continuum observations of the protoplanetary system AS 209 in the Ophiuchus star forming region. The dust continuum emission is characterized by a main central core and two prominent rings at $r = 75\,$au and $r = 130\,$au intervaled by two gaps at at $r = 62\,$au and $r = 103\,$au. The two gaps have different widths and depths, with the inner one being narrower and shallower. We determined the surface density of the millimeter dust grains using the 3D radiative transfer disk code \textsc{dali}. According to our fiducial model the inner gap is partially filled with millimeter grains while the outer gap is largely devoid of dust. The inferred surface density is compared to 3D hydrodynamical simulations (FARGO-3D) of planet-disk interaction. The outer dust gap is consistent with the presence of a giant planet ($M_{\rm planet} \sim 0.8\,M_{\rm Staturn}$); the planet is responsible for the gap opening and for the pile-up of dust at the outer edge of the planet orbit. The simulations also show that the same planet can give origin to the inner gap at $r = 62\,$au. The relative position of the two dust gaps is close to the 2:1 resonance and we have investigated the possibility of a second planet inside the inner gap. The resulting surface density (including location, width and depth of the two dust gaps) are in agreement with the observations. The properties of the inner gap pose a strong constraint to the mass of the inner planet ($M_{\rm planet} < 0.1\,M_{\rm J}$). In both scenarios (single or pair of planets), the hydrodynamical simulations suggest a very low disk viscosity ($��< 10^{-4}$). Given the young age of the system (0.5 - 1 Myr), this result implies that the formation of giant planets occurs on a timescale of $\lesssim$ 1\,Myr., Accepted by A&A

Context. Outflow cavities in envelopes of young stellar objects (YSOs) have been pr edicted to allow far-UV (FUV) photons to escape far from the central source, with significant observable e ffects, especially if the protostar is a forming high-mass star suspected of emitting a copious amount of FUV radiation. Indirect evidence of this picture has been provided by models and unresolved single-dish observations, but direct high-resolution data are necessary for con firmation. Previous chemical modeling has suggested that CS and HCN are good probes of the local FUV field, so make good target specie s. Aims. We directly probe the physical conditions of the material in the outflow walls to te st this prediction. Methods. Interferometric observations of the CS(7-6) and HCN(4-3) rotational lines in the high-mass star-forming region AFGL 2591 are carried out in the compact and extended configuration of the SubMillim eter Array (SMA). The velocity structure was analyzed, and integrated maps compared to K-band near-IR observations. A chemical model predicts abundances of CS and HCN for a gas under protostellar X-ray and FUV irradiation, and was used in conjunction with the data to distinguish between physical scenarios. Results. CS and HCN emission was found in spatial coincidence in extended sources displaced up to 7 ′′ from the position of the young star. Their line widths are small, excluding major shocks. Chemical model calculations predict an enhanced abundance of the two molecules in warm, dense, and FUV irradiated gas. Hot dust observed between the molecular emission and the outflow accounts for the necessary attenuation to prevent photodissociation of the molecule s. Conclusions. The SMA data suggest that the outflow walls are heated and chemically altere d by the FUV emission of the central high-mass object, providing the best direct evidence yet of large-sca le direct irradiation of outflow walls.

Observations of CO+ suggest column densities on the order 10^12 cm^-2 that can not be reproduced by many chemical models. CO+ is more likely to be destroyed than excited in collisions with hydrogen. An anomalous excitation mechanism may thus have to be considered when interpreting CO^+ observations. Chemical models are used to perform a parameter study of CO^+ abundances. Line fluxes are calculated for N(CO+)=10^12 cm^-2 and different gas densities and temperatures using a non-LTE escape probability method. The chemical formation and destruction rates are considered explicitly in the detailed balance equations of the radiative transfer. In addition, the rotational levels of CO+ are assumed to be excited upon chemical formation according to a formation temperature. It is found, that chemical models are generally able to produce high fractional CO+ abundances (x(CO+) =10^-10). In a far-ultraviolet (FUV) dominated environment, however, high abundances of CO+ are only produced in regions with a Habing field G0 > 100 and T(kin) > 600 K, posing a strong constraint on the gas temperature. For gas densities >10^6 cm^-3 and temperatures > 600 K, the combination of chemical and radiative transfer analysis shows little effect on intensities of CO+ lines with upper levels N_up 10^6 cm ^ -3. The Herschel Space Observatory is able to reveal such effects in the terahertz wavelength regime. Ideal objects to observe are protoplanetary disks with densities 10^6 cm^-3. It is finally suggested that the CO+ chemistry may be well understood and that the abundances observed so far can be explained with a high enough gas temperature and a proper geometry., 9 pages, 7 figures

Our ALMA Cycle 0 and 2 observations in Band 6 provide tracers of the disk (C18 O, 13 CO), the envelope (13 CO, DCO+ ) and the outflow and its cavity (12 CO, 13 CO, c-C3 H2 ) towards VLA1623, a triple non-coeval system in ρ Ophiuchus (d∼120 pc). The observations are combined with simple chemical and physical models. We find differing circumstellar envelope and outflows. VLA1623 appears to not be as chemically rich as other deeply embedded sources.

Transitional disks with large dust cavities are important laboratories to study planet formation and disk evolution. Cold gas may still be present inside these cavities, but the quantification of this gas is challenging. The gas content is important to constrain the origin of the dust cavity. We use Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of 12CO 6--5 and 690 GHz (Band 9) continuum of five well-studied transitional disks. In addition, we analyze previously published Band 7 observations of a disk in 12CO 3--2 line and 345 GHz continuum. The observations are used to set constraints on the gas and dust surface density profiles, in particular the drop delta-gas of the gas density inside the dust cavity. The physical-chemical modeling code DALI is used to analyze the gas and dust images simultaneously. We model SR21, HD135344B, LkCa15, SR24S and RXJ1615-3255 (Band 9) and J1604-2130 (Band 7). The SED and continuum visibility curve constrain the dust surface density. Subsequently, the same model is used to calculate the 12CO emission, which is compared with the observations through spectra and intensity cuts. The amount of gas inside the cavity is quantified by varying the delta-gas parameter. Model fits to the dust and gas indicate that gas is still present inside the dust cavity for all disks but at a reduced level. The gas surface density drops inside the cavity by at least a factor 10, whereas the dust density drops by at least a factor 1000. Disk masses are comparable with previous estimates from the literature, cavity radii are found to be smaller than in the 345 GHz SubMillimeter Array (SMA) data. The derived gas surface density profiles suggest clearing of the cavity by one or more companions in all cases, trapping the millimeter-sized dust at the edge of the cavity., Comment: Accepted by A&A

Herschel-HIFI spectra of H2O towards low-mass protostars show a distinct velocity component not seen in observations from the ground of CO or other species. The aim is to characterise this component in terms of excitation conditions and physical origin. A velocity component with an offset of ~10 km/s detected in spectra of the H2O 110-101 557 GHz transition towards six low-mass protostars in the 'Water in star-forming regions with Herschel' (WISH) programme is also seen in higher-excited H2O lines. The emission from this component is quantified and excitation conditions are inferred using 1D slab models. Data are compared to observations of hydrides (high-J CO, OH+, CH+, C+, OH) where the same component is uniquely detected. The velocity component is detected in all 6 targeted H2O transitions (Eup~50-250K), and in CO 16-15 towards one source, Ser SMM1. Inferred excitation conditions imply that the emission arises in dense (n~5x10^6-10^8 cm^-3) and hot (T~750K) gas. The H2O and CO column densities are ~10^16 and 10^18 cm^-2, respectively, implying a low H2O abundance of 10^-2 with respect to CO. The high column densities of ions such as OH+ and CH+ (both ~10^13 cm^-2) indicate an origin close to the protostar where the UV field is strong enough that these species are abundant. The estimated radius of the emitting region is 100AU. This component likely arises in dissociative shocks close to the protostar, an interpretation corroborated by a comparison with models of such shocks. Furthermore, one of the sources, IRAS4A, shows temporal variability in the offset component over a period of two years which is expected from shocks in dense media. High-J CO gas detected with Herschel-PACS with Trot~700K is identified as arising in the same component and traces the part of the shock where H2 reforms. Thus, H2O reveals new dynamical components, even on small spatial scales in low-mass protostars., Comment: 13 pages, accepted for publication in A&A

(Abridged) Star and planet formation theories predict an evolution in the density, temperature, and velocity structure as the envelope collapses and forms an accretion disk. The aim of this work is to model the evolution of the molecular excitation, line profiles, and related observables during low-mass star formation. Specifically, the signatures of disks during the deeply embedded stage are investigated. Semi-analytic 2D axisymmetric models have been used to describe the evolution of the density, stellar mass, and luminosity from the pre-stellar to the T-Tauri phase. A full radiative transfer calculation is carried out to accurately determine the time-dependent dust temperatures and CO abundance structure. We present non-LTE near-IR, FIR, and submm lines of CO have been simulated at a number of time steps. In contrast to the dust temperature, the CO excitation temperature derived from submm/FIR lines does not vary during the protostellar evolution, consistent with C18O observations obtained with Herschel and from ground-based telescopes. The near-IR spectra provide complementary information to the submm lines by probing not only the cold outer envelope but also the warm inner region. The near-IR high-J (>8) absorption lines are particularly sensitive to the physical structure of the inner few AU, which does show evolution. High signal-to-noise ratio subarcsec resolution data with ALMA are needed to detect the presence of small rotationally supported disks during the Stage 0 phase and various diagnostics are discussed., Accepted for publication in A&A, 17 pages with appendix; 14 figures

We present observations of far-infrared (50-200 micron) OH and H2O emission of the disk around the Herbig Ae star HD 163296 obtained with Herschel/PACS in the context of the DIGIT key program. In addition to strong [OI] emission, a number of OH doublets and a few weak highly excited lines of H2O are detected. The presence of warm H2O in this Herbig disk is confirmed by a line stacking analysis, enabled by the full PACS spectral scan, and by lines seen in Spitzer data. The line fluxes are analyzed using an LTE slab model including line opacity. The water column density is 10^14 - 10^15 cm^-2, and the excitation temperature is 200-300 K implying warm gas with a density n > 10^5 cm^-3. For OH we find a column density of 10^14 - 2x10^15 cm^-2 and T_ex ~ 300-500 K. For both species we find an emitting region of r ~ 15-20 AU from the star. We argue that the molecular emission arises from the protoplanetary disk rather than from an outflow. This far-infrared detection of both H2O and OH contrasts with near- and mid-infrared observations, which have generally found a lack of water in the inner disk around Herbig AeBe stars due to strong photodissociation of water. Given the similarity in column density and emitting region, OH and H2O emission seems to arise from an upper layer of the disk atmosphere of HD 163296, probing a new reservoir of water. The slightly lower temperature of H2O compared to OH suggests a vertical stratification of the molecular gas with OH located higher and water deeper in the disk, consistent with thermo-chemical models., Accepted for publication in A&A

(Abridged) Water is a key tracer of dynamics and chemistry in low-mass protostars, but spectrally resolved observations have so far been limited in sensitivity and angular resolution. In this first systematic survey of spectrally resolved water emission in low-mass protostellar objects, H2O was observed in the ground-state transition at 557 GHz with HIFI on Herschel in 29 embedded Class 0 and I protostars. Complementary far-IR and sub-mm continuum data (including PACS data from our program) are used to constrain the spectral energy distribution of each source. H2O intensities are compared to inferred envelope and outflow properties and CO 3-2 emission. H2O emission is detected in all objects except one. The line profiles are complex and consist of several kinematic components. The profiles are typically dominated by a broad Gaussian emission feature, indicating that the bulk of the water emission arises in outflows, not the quiescent envelope. Several sources show multiple shock components in either emission or absorption, thus constraining the internal geometry of the system. Furthermore, the components include inverse P-Cygni profiles in 7 sources (6 Class 0, 1 Class I) indicative of infalling envelopes, and regular P-Cygni profiles in 4 sources (3 Class I, 1 Class 0) indicative of expanding envelopes. "Bullets" moving at >50 km/s are seen in 4 Class 0 sources; 3 of these are new detections. In the outflow, the H2O/CO abundance ratio as a function of velocity is nearly the same for all sources, increasing from 10^-3 at 10^-1 at >10 km/s. The H2O abundance in the outer envelope is low, ~10^-10. The different H2O profile components show a clear evolutionary trend: in the Class 0 sources, emission is dominated by outflow components originating inside an infalling envelope. When the infall diminishes during the Class I phase, the outflow weakens and H2O emission disappears., Accepted for publication in A&A

Aims. Young stars interact vigorously with their surroundings, as evident from the highly rotationally excited CO (up to Eup=4000 K) and H2O emission (up to 600 K) detected by the Herschel Space Observatory in embedded low-mass protostars. Our aim is to construct a model that reproduces the observations quantitatively, to investigate the origin of the emission, and to use the lines as probes of the various heating mechanisms. Methods. The model consists of a spherical envelope with a bipolar outflow cavity. Three heating mechanisms are considered: passive heating by the protostellar luminosity, UV irradiation of the outflow cavity walls, and C-type shocks along the cavity walls. Line fluxes are calculated for CO and H2O and compared to Herschel data and complementary ground-based data for the protostars NGC1333 IRAS2A, HH 46 and DK Cha. The three sources are selected to span a range of evolutionary phases and physical characteristics. Results. The passively heated gas in the envelope accounts for 3-10% of the CO luminosity summed over all rotational lines up to J=40-39; it is best probed by low-J CO isotopologue lines such as C18O 2-1 and 3-2. The UV-heated gas and the C-type shocks, probed by 12CO 10-9 and higher-J lines, contribute 20-80% each. The model fits show a tentative evolutionary trend: the CO emission is dominated by shocks in the youngest source and by UV-heated gas in the oldest one. This trend is mainly driven by the lower envelope density in more evolved sources. The total H2O line luminosity in all cases is dominated by shocks (>99%). The exact percentages for both species are uncertain by at least a factor of 2 due to uncertainties in the gas temperature as function of the incident UV flux. However, on a qualitative level, both UV-heated gas and C-type shocks are needed to reproduce the emission in far-infrared rotational lines of CO and H2O., 15 pages (+4 pages appendix), 20 figures, accepted by A&A

SWAS and Odin provided stringent upper limits on the gas phase water abundance of dark clouds (x(H2O) < 7x10^-9). We investigate the chemistry of water vapor in starless cores beyond the previous upper limits using the highly improved angular resolution and sensitivity of Herschel and measure the abundance of water vapor during evolutionary stages just preceding star formation. High spectral resolution observations of the fundamental ortho water (o-H2O) transition (557 GHz) were carried out with Herschel HIFI toward two starless cores: B68, a Bok globule, and L1544, a prestellar core embedded in the Taurus molecular cloud complex. The rms in the brightness temperature measured for the B68 and L1544 spectra is 2.0 and 2.2 mK, respectively, in a velocity bin of 0.59 km s^-1. The continuum level is 3.5+/-0.2 mK in B68 and 11.4+/-0.4 mK in L1544. No significant feature is detected in B68 and the 3 sigma upper limit is consistent with a column density of o-H2O N(o-H2O) < 2.5x10^13 cm^-2, or a fractional abundance x(o-H2O) < 1.3x10^-9, more than an order of magnitude lower than the SWAS upper limit on this source. The L1544 spectrum shows an absorption feature at a 5 sigma level from which we obtain the first value of the o-H2O column density ever measured in dark clouds: N(o-H2O) = (8+/-4)x10^12 cm^-2. The corresponding fractional abundance is x(o-H2O) ~ 5x10^-9 at radii > 7000 AU and ~2x10^-10 toward the center. The radiative transfer analysis shows that this is consistent with a x(o-H2O) profile peaking at ~10^-8, 0.1 pc away from the core center, where both freeze-out and photodissociation are negligible. Herschel has provided the first measurement of water vapor in dark regions. Prestellar cores such as L1544 (with their high central densities, strong continuum, and large envelopes) are very promising tools to finally shed light on the solid/vapor balance of water in molecular clouds., Accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics (HIFI first results issue)