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Concrete is a popular construction material used all around the globe. It is strong in compression and weak in tension. To mitigate this tensile weakness, various reinforcement methods have been used over the years, of these, fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) has gained popularity. Fibres not only improve the tensile strength of the concrete matrix, but also control crack propagation through crack bridging action. The goal of this study is to investigate the long-term behaviour of FRC pavements through conduction of static and fatigue meso-scale level tests using different steel fibres. To achieve this goal, the influence of different fibre geometries and embedment angles on the pull-out behaviour of fibres in FRC was investigated first. This was carried out by examining 60mm Dramix 3D steel and 5D steel fibres at single fibre level. The embedment depth was kept constant at half the fibre length, and the fibre embedment angles were tested at 0°, 15° and 30°. The average maximum pull-out load, Amax, was determined first through static tests then fatigue tests were carried out using 85% of the Amax value on pre-damaged samples. These tests indicated that an increase in fibre embedment angle and number of hooks leads to additional anchorage of the fibre. Fibre pull-out was found to be the dominant fibre failure mechanism for the static single fibre pull-out tests (SFPTs).

The cracking of fresh concrete, while still in a plastic state, includes both plastic settlement and plastic shrinkage cracking, which starts once the concrete is cast to around the final setting time. The cracking process is complex and is influenced by numerous factors which include the climate, mix proportions, element geometry and construction procedures. Preventing these cracks therefore remains a problem in practice. One of the reasons for this is the lack of a model that can be used to determine the location, timing and severity of the cracking before the cracking occurs. The main challenges with such a model are the testing of the fresh concrete to determine the tensile material properties, the appropriate constitutive law needed, and the time dependency of material properties as well as the anisotropic volume change. This paper presents a finite element model that uses a total strain smeared cracking approach and accounts for both the time dependency of material properties and the anisotropic volume change. The model gives an adequate representation of the cracking behaviour of fresh concrete for extreme climates but not for normal to moderate climates, mainly due to the size discrepancy between the interior and surface cracks during experiments as well as the relaxation of stresses that are not accounted for in the model. A parameter study showed that both the settlement and shrinkage strains significantly influence and therefore govern the size of the final plastic crack, while the material mechanical properties only influence the time of crack onset and rate of crack widening.

High early age concrete temperatures can lead to many problems such as an increased rate of cement hydration, as well as an increased rate of moisture loss from fresh concrete which can ultimately lead to the occurrence of plastic shrinkage cracking. Concrete is also batched and cast at various ambient temperatures which greatly influences the temperature development of the concrete after placement. There is a need to understand the influence of concrete temperature on the plastic cracking of concrete. This study investigated the temperature development over the thickness of a concrete slab when exposed to different initial concrete and ambient temperatures as well as the effect these factors have on plastic shrinkage cracking. This was achieved by experiments on concrete samples at varying temperatures while measuring the concrete temperature, pore water evaporation, shrinkage, settlement, setting times and plastic shrinkage cracking magnitude. These tests were conducted in a climate controlled chamber. It was concluded that exposure to higher initial concrete and ambient temperatures significantly increases the average temperature over the thickness of the concrete. The evaporation of pore water was higher when exposed to higher evaporation conditions. The plastic shrinkage, settlement and plastic shrinkage cracking were more severe in the presence of higher initial concrete and ambient temperatures even though the critical period and setting times were reduced due to an increase in the concrete temperature. Finally, the surface temperature of the concrete as tested in slabs up to 100 mm in thickness can be used as a good indication of the temperature development in the lower layers of the concrete.

During the plastic state of concrete, any hindrance or resistance of the free volume change in plastic concrete induce tensile stresses and or strains in the concrete element. Crack formation is expected to occur if the tensile stress and strain is greater than the capacity of the concrete. Investigation into the tensile properties and relaxation behaviour of plastic concrete was carried out using a direct tensile testing machine. The capillary pressure was measured during the tensile tests in low evaporation conditions, as well as in a climate controlled chamber where the concrete was exposed to high evaporation conditions. Most of the measured strength gain (tensile capacity) of the concrete is due to the capillary pressure in the pores of the fresh concrete which keeps the particles together by means of free water in the concrete during the early stiffening phase of the concrete. Later the hydration products bridge the pores which provides strength to the concrete. The capillary pressure results indicate how the rate of hydration influence the interconnectivity of the pores, and the contribution to the measured strength gain of the fresh concrete. The capillary pressure measurements during tensile tests revealed that the mechanism behind relaxation is the negative capillary pressure build-up induced by the mechanical tensile strain. The results also showed a correlation between the build-up of the capillary pressure in the concrete and the tensile deformation of the fresh concrete where the capillary pressure increased as the tensile load increased.

The reinforcement of 3D printed concrete elements has proven to be a significant challenge that needs to be addressed. However, before reinforcement can be applied, the behaviour of the consequent composite materials must first be studied. This study, therefore, investigates the macromechanical behaviour of AR glass fibre textile material as reinforcement in terms of its flexural performance, to determine whether it is a feasible solution. During this study, elements, consisting of four layers, are printed flat on the surface bed of the printer and are reinforced by a textile mesh in between subsequently printed layers. The specimens are reinforced at different locations, with different geometrical orientations as well as different filament orientations, and are then compared. The flexural performance is quantified by conducting four-point bending tests 28 days after printing. The results of the tests show that by adding this specific mesh, the average flexural strength of the elements increases significantly. Furthermore, elements with the warp yarns aligned with the printed filament have increased flexural strength. During the testing, it is also discovered that voids form underneath the textile mesh when applied between the layers and that these voids influence on the performance of the elements.