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Objective: Investments have been made to alter the food environment of neighbourhoods that have a disproportionate number of unhealthy food venues. Corner store conversions are one strategy to increase access to fruits and vegetables (F&V). Although the literature shows modest success, the effectiveness of these interventions remains equivocal. The present paper reports on the evaluation of Proyecto MercadoFRESCO, a corner store conversion intervention in two Latino communities. Design: A repeated cross-sectional design was employed. Data were stratified by intervention arm and bivariate tests assessed changes over time. Logistic and multiple regression models with intervention arm, time and the interaction of intervention and time were conducted. Supplementary analyses account for clustering of patrons within stores and staggering of store conversions. Setting: Three stores were converted and five stores served as comparisons in East Los Angeles and Boyle Heights, California, USA. Subjects: Store patrons were interviewed before (n 550) and after (n 407) the intervention. Results: Relative to patrons of comparison stores, patrons of intervention stores demonstrated more favourable perceptions of corner stores and increased purchasing of F&V during that store visit. Changes were not detected in store patronage, percentage of weekly dollars spent on food for F&V or daily consumption of F&V. Conclusions: Consistent with some extant food environment literature, findings demonstrate limited effects. Investments should be made in multilevel, comprehensive interventions that target a variety retail food outlets rather than focusing on corner stores exclusively. Complementary policies limiting the availability, affordability and marketing of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods should also be pursued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the research from which this paper is derived, we have observed and tape-recorded approximately 115 lawyer-client conferences. Our observations were made in two sites, one in California and one in Massachusetts. In this paper we take an in-depth look at the nature of lawyer-client discourse by focusing on one conference. We explore three of the most important themes in that discourse. First is the discussion and characterization of the legal system and its major actors. Next is the exploration of the advantages and disadvantages of disposing of disputed issues through negotiation or trial. Finally, the third theme involves the "legal construction of the client," where a lawyer and client discuss rules of relevance that govern the legal process as well as the aspects of the client's experience that are to be the subject of legal inquiry. The paper concludes by exploring the way each of these themes expresses or embodies prevailing legal ideologies and influences the way cases develop and are managed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine the effectiveness of a workplace sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) sales ban on reducing SSB consumption in employees, including those with cardiometabolic disease risk factors. Design: A controlled trial of ethnically diverse, full-time employees who consumed SSB heavily (sales ban n 315; control n 342). Outcomes included standardised measures of change in SSB consumption in the workplace (primary) and at home between baseline and 6 months post-sales ban. Setting: Sutter Health, a large non-profit healthcare delivery system in Northern California. Participants: Full-time employees at Sutter Health screened for heavy SSB consumption. Results: Participants were 66·1 % non-White. On average, participants consumed 34·7 ounces (about 1 litre) of SSB per d, and the majority had an elevated baseline BMI (mean = 29·5). In adjusted regression analyses, those exposed to a workplace SSB sales ban for 6 months consumed 2·7 (95 % CI –4·9, –0·5) fewer ounces of SSB per d while at work, and 4·3 (95 % CI –8·4, –0·2) fewer total ounces per d, compared to controls. Sales ban participants with an elevated BMI or waist circumference had greater post-intervention reductions in workplace SSB consumption. Conclusions: Workplace sales bans can reduce SSB consumption in ethnically diverse employee populations, including those at higher risk for cardiometabolic disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The present paper examines the influence of age and gender on food patterns of Latino children.Design: Data are from baseline of a 5-year, quasi-experimental obesity prevention study: Niños Sanos, Familia Sana (NSFS; Healthy Children, Healthy Families). In 2012, the researchers interviewed Latino parents, using a thirty-item questionnaire to ask about their children's food consumption and feeding practices. Statistical tests included t tests and ANCOVA.Setting: Rural communities in California's Central Valley, USA.Subjects: Two hundred and seventeen parents (87-89% born in Mexico) and their children (aged 2-8 years).Results: Fifty-one per cent of the children were overweight or obese (≥85th percentile of BMI for age and gender). Mean BMI Z-scores were not significantly different in boys (1·10 (SD 1·07)) and girls (0·92 (SD 1·04); P=0·12). In bivariate analysis, children aged 2-4 years consumed fast and convenience foods less often (P=0·04) and WIC (Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children)-allowable foods more often than children aged 5-8 years (P=0·01). In ANCOVA, neither age nor gender was significantly related to food patterns. Mother's acculturation level was positively related to children's consumption of fast and convenience foods (P=0·0002) and negatively related to consumption of WIC foods (P=0·01). Providing role modelling and structure in scheduling meals and snacks had a positive effect on the vegetable pattern (P=0·0007), whereas meal skipping was associated with more frequent fast and convenience food consumption (P=0·04).Conclusions: Acculturation and child feeding practices jointly influence food patterns in Latino immigrant children and indicate a need for interventions that maintain diet quality as children transition to school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article informs that the sixty-fourth annual meeting of the Economic History Association will be held in San Jose, California from 10-12 September, 2004. Many of the sessions will be focused on the theme "Technological Change and Economic Growth in History." The program committee encourages submissions that provide a historical or interdisciplinary perspective on key issues in technological change, social and economic innovation, productivity, and economic growth. Graduate students are encouraged to attend. Complete information regarding the program schedule and other details are provided in the article.

The article focuses on creating mathematical finance models to predict decisions by international banks using data on their foreign direct investment (FDI) behavior to determine whether the banks will open foreign branches. The authors use data from firms in Japan and California to test their models. Their statistical analysis uses both a utility of linear discriminant analysis as well as maximum likelihood logic analysis for understanding the relationship between dependent and independent variables.

Examines the way science has been used to address intersexuality, according to a paper presented during the Annual Southern California Philosophy Conference in Long Beach on October 21, 2000. Understanding of science as objective and yet influenced by social, historical and cultural factors; Semantic view of theories of how science described reality.

Discusses a paper on intersexuality presented during the Annual Southern California Philosophy Conference in Long Beach on October 21, 2000. Expectation about proper gender activities furnishing the frameworks through which certain features and combinations of features are understood to be fundamental to bodies; Interpretation of a person as a category of sex.

Objective: School-based CalFresh Healthy Living (CFHL) (California's SNAP-Ed) interventions adapted to new learning environments necessitated by COVID-19. We examined the impact of these interventions on student diet and physical activity (PA) outcomes. Design: Quasi-experimental, two-group, pre-post. Setting: California public schools with ≥50 % of students Free and Reduced Price Meal-eligible (n intervention = 47; n comparison = 17). Participants: Fourth- and fifth-grade students who completed the online Eating and Activity Tool for Students at pre and post (n intervention = 1087; n comparison = 846 students). Results: Intervention students reported a significantly greater increase in consumption frequency of total fruit (by 0·16 times/d; P = 0·032), driven primarily by a greater increase in 100 % fruit juice (by 0·11 times/d; P = 0·007). Intervention students reported a significantly greater increase in total vegetable consumption frequency (by 0·45 times/d; P < 0·001) than comparison students. Specifically, intervention students reported increased, whereas comparison students reported decreased, consumption frequencies for starchy vegetables (0·05 v. −0·10 times/d, P < 0·001), salad/green vegetables (0·01 v. −0·11 times/d, P = 0·005) and beans (0·04 v. −0·03 times/d, P = 0·025). Consumption frequency of other vegetables decreased in both groups (−0·01 v. −0·09 times/d) but decreased more among comparison students (P = 0·048). No differences in pre-post change in PA outcomes were detected. Conclusions: Findings suggest that despite COVID-19-related challenges necessitating programme modifications, CFHL interventions played a role in protecting student consumption of fruit and vegetables during the 2020–2021 school year. Therefore, it appears that school-based CFHL interventions can be a viable means of safeguarding student nutrition at a time when access to nutritious food and PA opportunities are hindered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To explore best practices and challenges in providing school meals during COVID-19 in a low-income, predominantly Latino, urban–rural region. Design: Semi-structured interviews with school district stakeholders and focus groups with parents were conducted to explore school meal provision during COVID-19 from June to August 2020. Data were coded and themes were identified to guide analysis. Community organisations were involved in all aspects of study design, recruitment, data collection and analysis. Setting: Six school districts in California's San Joaquin Valley. Participants: School district stakeholders (n 11) included food service directors, school superintendents and community partners (e.g. funders, food cooperative). Focus groups (n 6) were comprised of parents (n 29) of children participating in school meal programmes. Results: COVID-19-related challenges for districts included developing safe meal distribution systems, boosting low participation, covering COVID-19-related costs and staying informed of policy changes. Barriers for families included transportation difficulties, safety concerns and a lack of fresh foods. Innovative strategies to address obstacles included pandemic-electronic benefits transfer (EBT), bus-stop delivery, community pick-up locations, batched meals and leveraging partner resources. Conclusions: A focus on fresher, more appealing meals and greater communication between school officials and parents could boost participation. Districts that leveraged external partnerships were better equipped to provide meals during pandemic conditions. In addition, policies increasing access to fresh foods and capitalising on United States Department of Agriculture waivers could boost school meal participation. Finally, partnering with community organisations and acting upon parent feedback could improve school meal systems, and in combination with pandemic-EBT, address childhood food insecurity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper, using mostly data drawn from a study of the criminal work of the Superior Court of Alameda County, California, from 1880 on, explores the history of plea bargaining. Plea bargaining, it turns out, was used in Alameda County from at least 1880 though it was by no means as common in the late 19th century as it is today. There is also ample evidence of "implicit plea bargaining." that is, pleading guilty in expectation of a lighter sentence. The data from this study suggest that plea bargaining cannot be explained simply as a reaction to crowded court conditions. It is connected with structural and social changes in criminal justice, in particular, the rise of professional police and prosecutors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the founding and early work of the California Marine Research Committee established in 1947 by the state legislature in response to the catastrophic failure of the Pacific Coast sardine fishery. Explanation on how a stalemate occurred that delayed a consensus on policy recommendations; Implication of the delayed policy recommendations for the sardine fishing industry.

Diverse agricultural management practices are critical for agroecosystem sustainability, and cover crops provide opportunity for varied management and increased biodiversity. Understanding how cover crops fill open ecological niches underneath the trees, interact with weeds, and potentially provide ecosystem services to decrease pest pressure is essential for ecological agricultural management. The goal of this study was to test the weed suppression potential of two cover crop treatments with varied functional diversity compared to standard weed management practices in commercial almond orchards in California. Transect plant surveys were used to evaluate orchard plant communities under a functionally diverse seed mix including grasses, legumes, and brassicas, and a relatively uniform cover crop mix that included only brassica species. Winter annual orchard cover crops reduced bare ground from 39.3% of total land area to 15.9 or 11.4%, depending on treatment. Furthermore, winter cover crops displaced weeds with a negative correlation of 0.74. The presence of cover crops did not consistently affect weed community composition for low-richness weed communities found in California orchards. Diverse cover crop mixes more reliably resulted in increased ground cover across site years compared to uniform cover crop mixes, with coefficients of variation for ground cover at 49.6 and 91.5%, respectively. Cover crops with different levels of functional diversity can contribute to orchard weed management programs at commercial scales. Functional diversity supports cover crop establishment, abundance, and competitiveness across varied agroecological conditions, and cover crop mixes could be designed to address an assortment of orchard management concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of PASOS SALUDABLES, a culturally tailored lifestyle intervention to prevent obesity and diabetes among Latino farmworkers, when implemented at large scale in the worksite.Design: This study was a two-arm parallel group, cluster randomised controlled trial, where participants received either a twelve-session lifestyle intervention (intervention) or six-session leadership training (control) at their worksite. The intervention was delivered by Promotoras in Spanish. All sessions were conducted at the worksites (ranches) during meal breaks. Blinded, trained research assistants collected socio-demographic and outcome data (i.e. BMI as primary outcome and waist circumference, glycated Hb (HbA1c), cholesterol and blood pressure as secondary outcomes) at baseline and follow-up assessments (i.e. 3 months, 6 months, 1 year and 1·5 years).Setting: Recruitment and intervention delivery occurred at twelve study ranches in Oxnard, California.Participants: We enrolled farmworkers hired by a large berry grower company, who were ≥18 years old, spoke Spanish and were free of diabetes at screening.Results: A total of 344 workers were enrolled in the intervention and 271 in the control group. The intervention resulted in attenuated increase of BMI over time; however, the difference in trend between groups was not significant (β = -0·01 for slope difference, P = 0·29). No significantly different trend by group was observed in secondary outcomes (P > 0·27).Conclusions: The worksite intervention, implemented during meal breaks, did not reduce BMI or other clinical indicators. Nevertheless, this study supports the feasibility of recruiting and engaging the Latino farmworker population in workplace health promotion interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: In 2019, California and Wilmington, Delaware' implemented policies requiring healthier default beverages with restaurant kids' meals. The current study assessed restaurant beverage offerings and manager perceptions.Design: Pre-post menu observations were conducted in California and Wilmington. Observations of cashiers/servers during orders were conducted pre-post implementation in California and post-implementation in Wilmington. Changes in California were compared using multilevel logistic regression and paired t tests. Post-implementation, managers were interviewed.Setting: Inside and drive-through ordering venues in a sample of quick-service restaurants in low-income California communities and all restaurants in Wilmington subject to the policy, the month before and 7-12 months after policy implementation.Participants: Restaurant observations (California n 110; Wilmington n 14); managers (California n 75; Wilmington n 15).Results: Pre-implementation, the most common kids' meal beverages on California menus were unflavoured milk and water (78·8 %, 52·0 %); in Wilmington, juice, milk and sugar-sweetened beverages were most common (81·8 %, 66·7 % and 46·2 %). Post-implementation, menus including only policy-consistent beverages significantly increased in California (9·7 % to 66·1 %, P < 0·0001), but remained constant in Wilmington (30·8 %). During orders, cashiers/servers offering only policy-consistent beverages significantly decreased post-implementation in California (5·0 % to 1·0 %, P = 0·002). Few managers (California 29·3 %; Wilmington 0 %) reported policy knowledge, although most expressed support. Most managers wanted additional information for customers and staff.Conclusions: While the proportion of menus offering only policy-consistent kids' meal default beverages increased in California, offerings did not change in Wilmington. In both jurisdictions, managers lacked policy knowledge, and few cashiers/servers offered only policy-consistent beverages. Additional efforts are needed to strengthen implementation of kids' meal beverage policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important consideration in evaluating the efficiency of subsistence resource exchange in the Santa Barbara channel region concerns the form in which acorns might have been traded from the mainland to the islands. A lack of archaeological evidence for acorn processing or consumption on the islands has led a number of researchers to suggest that acorns may have been traded to the islands as pre-pounded flour, rather than as whole acorns. Using new experimentally determined mass and weight measurements for acorns and acorn flour, this paper argues that pre-transport pounding would not have increased the efficiency of acorn exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: In February 2020, San Francisco proposed mandatory health warnings for sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) advertisements. Industry legal challenges stated that the warning would detract from advertisers' ability to convey their intended message and mislead consumers into believing that SSB cause weight gain regardless of consumption amount, lifestyle or intake of other energy-dense foods.Design: Online between-group experiments tested the impact of SSB warnings on advertising outcomes and consumer perceptions. Respondents were randomised to view six SSB print advertisements with or without a health warning ('Warning' and 'No Warning' condition, respectively). Linear and binary logistic regression models tested differences between groups, including ad recall, brand perceptions and beliefs about SSB health effects.Setting: Panelists from the US Nielsen Global Panel.Participants: Sixteen to 65-year-old respondents (n 1064).Results: Overall, 69·2 % of participants in the 'Warning' condition recalled seeing warnings on SSB ads. Compared with the 'No Warning' condition, participants in the 'Warning' condition who reported noticing the warnings were equally likely to recall the brands featured in the SSB ads and to recall specific attributes of the final ad they viewed. Similarly, no differences were observed between groups in perceptions of SSB, such as perceived taste, or in the prevalence of false beliefs regarding the health effects of SSB and intake of other sugary foods on weight gain.Conclusions: Overall, there was no evidence that SSB health warnings detracted from attention to promotional elements in advertisements or that the warnings misled consumers into false beliefs about SSB as the exclusive cause of weight gain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In her recent article, "Credit Where Credit is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoes," Jeanne Arnold questions our 2005 paper in which we suggested that a prehistoric contact event with Polynesians resulted in conveyance of the sewn-plank boat construction technique and a particular style of compound bone fishhook to the Chumash and Gabrielino of southern California. We agree with many of Arnold's views about the cascading effects of sewn-plank boat construction on Native societies of southern California, but question her dismissal of certain aspects of the empirical record, particularly the linguistics, in portraying this invention as strictly autochihonous. Here we recast aspects of the linguistic evidence that Arnold overlooks, provide evidence from oral history which she says is lacking, and discuss chronological issues that are much less straightforward than she suggests. We also mention implications of recent findings from South America. Finally, we submit that we have not discredited the Chumash or any other Native society in developing this hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fossil ceratioid anglerfishes are described from the Upper Miocene (upper Mohnian) deposits of the Puente Formation, Los Angeles Basin, California. The specimens were collected from the laminated turbiditic deposits of the Yorba Member in the eastern sector of the Los Angeles Basin during the construction of a new metro rail line. Five taxa (Borophryne cf. apogon; Chaenophryne aff. melanorhabdus; Leptacanthichihys cf. gracilispinis; Linophryne cf. indica; Oneirodes sp.) belonging to two families, Linophrynidae and Oneirodidae, are described based on nine metamorphosed females. A detailed osteological analysis of the fossils has revealed that they can be tentatively assigned to extant species, suggesting that little or no relevant morphological change has characterized these taxa at least since the Late Miocene. Biogeographic considerations suggest that the Late Miocene ceratioid assemblages of the Los Angeles Basin are strikingly similar to those that currently inhabit the tropical and subtropical eastern Pacific region. From a paleoenvironmental point of view, the excellent preservation of the specimens suggests a reduced turbulence and velocity of the turbidity fluxes. Finally, the comparative study of the bathymetric ranges of the ceratioid taxa recognized in the fossil assemblage described in this paper suggests that the minimum depth of the depositional environment might be estimated at approximately 1,000 m. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cretaceous bryozoans from western North America are very poorly known. This paper describes twelve species of cheilostomes from the Upper Cretaceous of southern California and Baja California. The only previously described bryozoan, Ceriocava eastoni Woollacott, 1966, from the Holz Member (?Turonian-Campanian), Ladd Formation of the Santa Ana Mountains, is transferred from Cyclostomata to Cheilostomata, made the type species of the new genus Zimmerella and placed in the family Chiplonarinidae. The following new Campanian-Maastrichtian species are described from the Rosario, Point Loma, and Cabrillo formations of San Diego County, California and Le Misión, Baja California: Wilbertopora sannerae sp. nov., Onychocella schopforum sp. nov., Trichinopolia californica sp. nov., and T. lata sp. nov. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In several recent, and highly provocative papers, McGuire and Hildebrandt (Hildebrandt and McGuire 2002, 2003; McGuire and Hildebrandt 2005) have helped introduce costly signaling theory into American archaeology. While their efforts are commendable, we feel that their reinterpretations of western North American prehistory overstate the likely influence of costly signaling on the archaeological record. Only by overlooking a considerable body of ethnographic literature that indicates a more limited role for signaling are they, able to characterize Great Basin and California hunters as motivated more by the pursuit of prestige than provisioning. We offer three specific challenges to their models: (1) while McGuire and Hildebrandt treat the issue as decided, the relationships among foraging, provisioning, prestige, and fitness is still actively contested among researchers; (2) while ethnographic studies suggest that some types of hunting and low-return, high-risk activities may indeed represent attempts by males to signal costly behavior, these activities contribute very, little to the faunal and other residues that accumulate in the archaeological record; and (3) the theoretical underpinnings of costly signaling explicitly preclude the type of runaway positive feedback loops that Hildebrandt and McGuire implicate as the driving force behind an apparent cultural collapse in the Great Basin at the end of the Middle Archaic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent publications debate the origins of the Chumash plank canoe (tomol) of southern California. The timing of its appearance is of considerable scholarly interest because of its significant role in the evolution of sociopolitical complexity among the coastal Chumash, who were among the world's most complex hunter-gatherers. This paper closely considers: (a) what constitutes reliable empirical evidence for canoe making and maintenance: (b) the mast current estimate for the date of origin of this sophisticated watercraft (and the empirical foundations for such an estimate): (c) a scenario for the development of the tomol as a complex technological system (CTS) and why credit is appropriately assigned to the coastal Chumash for its development: and (d) the impacts of this technological system on Chumash sociopolitical evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article evaluates the "Projections of America," a documentary film written by Robert Riskin, head of the Overseas Branch of the Office of War Information, during World War II. The film described the propaganda movement during the war which was comprehensively organized by Riskin. It was produced with the aim to give the viewers a clear figure of America, during, and after the war, as well as to develop peaceful relationship.

The Chumash tomol, a sophisticated planked canoe, came into use in the Santa Barbara Channel region of Southern California about 1,500 years ago. It is often assumed that planked watercraft were first developed in the region at about that date. This paper argues, on theoretical grounds, that planked canoes were developed much earlier in Southern California, perhaps as early as 8,500 years ago. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a recent paper in American Antiquity (2002:231-256), Hildebrandt and McGuire argue that archaeofaunal patterns in California document an ascendance of artiodactyl hunting during the Middle Archaic. They also suggest that such a trend is inconsistent with predictions derived from optimal-foraging models. Given the apparent failure of foraging theory, they advance a "showing off" model of large-game hunting. While their presentation is intriguing, we do not see a theoretical warrant for predicting that show-off hunting would have increased during the Middle Archaic. We present here an alternative hypothesis for the increase in artiodactyl abundances and the hunting-related patterns they identify. That hypothesis follows directly from the prey model itself under what appears to have been a dramatic artiodactyl population expansion after the drought-dominated middle Holocene period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the minutes and proceedings of the Executive Committee Meeting of the Western Finance Association held in Anaheim, California on June 20, 1977. Subjects addressed during the meeting include the Treasurer's report, the decision to increase annual membership-subscription fees, and to join with the Western Economics Association for job placement projects.

Objective: To assess trends in consumption of soda, sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks and any sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) from 2013 to 2016 among all children in California aged 2-5 and 6-11 years and by racial-ethnic group.Design: Serial cross-sectional study using the California Health Interview Survey (CHIS).Setting: CHIS is a telephone survey of households in California designed to assess population-level estimates of key health behaviours. Previous research using CHIS documented a decrease in SSB consumption among children in California from 2003 to 2009 coinciding with state-level policy efforts targeting child SSB consumption.Participants: Parents of children in California aged 2-11 years (n 4901 in 2013-2014; n 3606 in 2015-2016) were surveyed about the child's consumption of soda and sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks on the day prior.Results: Among 2-5-year-olds, consumption of soda, sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks and any SSB remained stable. Sweetened fruit drink/sports drink consumption was higher than soda consumption in this age group. Latino 2-5- year-olds were more likely to consume any SSB in both 2013-2014 and 2015-2016 compared with Whites. Among 6-11-year-olds, consumption of soda, sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks and any SSB also remained stable over time. Latino and African-American 6-11-year-olds were more likely to consume an SSB in 2013-2014 compared with White children.Conclusions: SSB consumption among children in California was unchanged from 2013 to 2016 and racial-ethnic disparities were evident. Increased policy efforts are needed to further reduce SSB consumption, particularly among children of Latino and African-American backgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess the feasibility and efficacy of in-restaurant interventions aiming to promote healthy choices via fundraising incentives benefiting school wellness programmes and point-of-purchase nutrition promotion.Design: Twelve schools were randomly assigned to one of the two intervention periods: Fundraising Incentive (FI) donated funds for visiting the study restaurant and Fundraising-Healthy Eating Incentive (F-HEI) included FI with additional funds given when selecting a healthier item. Both conditions included point-of-purchase nutrition promotions. Families were recruited to attend their designated intervention and complete a survey. Feasibility was assessed based on recruitment and participation, implementation fidelity and intervention acceptability. Efficacy was assessed by comparing participant receipts between intervention periods and by comparing overall restaurant sales during intervention v. two no-intervention time frames.Setting: Fast-casual restaurant in Southern California.Participants: Parents with children attending participating schools.Results: Eighty-one families visited the restaurant during the intervention, with sixty-six completing surveys. All study activities were implemented successfully, but school family participation in the intervention was low (0·95 %). Among participants completing surveys, all indicated satisfaction with the programme. The percentage of healthier items ordered was significantly greater during both FI (χ2 = 5·97, P = 0·01) and F-HEI (χ2 = 8·84, P = 0·003) v. Comparison 2. Results were similar but did not reach statistical significance when comparing the interventions to Comparison 1.Conclusions: Results support potential efficacy of this programme, but more research is needed to inform feasibility. Fidelity and acceptability data supported feasibility, but participation rates were low in this initial study. Methods evaluating this intervention with a greater proportion of parents should be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Drinking water instead of beverages with added sugar can help prevent obesity and cavities and promote overall health. Children spend much of their day in school, where they have variable access to drinking water. In 2010, federal and state law required California public schools to provide free potable water to students in areas where meals are served and/or eaten. The current study aims to identify factors associated with an excellent drinking water culture in schools.Design: A qualitative assessment of barriers and facilitators to providing excellent water quality and access in a purposive sample of California schools. In-depth interviews with key informants were conducted using a snowball sampling approach, after which data were analysed using both inductive and deductive methods.Setting: California public elementary, middle/junior and high schools.Participants: Knowledgeable individuals involved in initiatives related to school drinking water accessibility, quality or education at each selected school.Results: Thirty-four interviewees participated across fifteen schools. Six themes emerged as prominent facilitators to a school's success in providing excellent water access to students: active and engaged champions, school culture and policy, coordination between groups, community influences, available resources and environmentalism.Conclusions: While policy is an important step for achieving minimum standards, resources and interest in promoting excellence in drinking water access and quality can vary among schools. Ensuring that schools have dedicated staff committed to advancing student health and promoting the benefits of water programs that are more salient to schools could help reduce disparities in drinking water excellence across schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The present study aimed to determine the store types from which people in low-income neighbourhoods purchase most sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) and to identify associations between purchasing location and demographic characteristics.Design: Street-intercept surveys of passers-by near high foot-traffic intersections in 2016. Participants completed a beverage frequency questionnaire and identified the type of store (e.g. corner store, chain grocery) from which they purchased most SSB.Setting: Eight low-income neighbourhoods in four Bay Area cities, California, USA.ParticipantsSample of 1132 individuals who reported consuming SSB, aged 18-88 years, who identified as African-American (41 %), Latino (29 %), White (17 %) and Asian (6 %).Results: Based on surveys in low-income neighbourhoods, corner stores were the primary source from which most SSB were purchased (28 %), followed by discount stores (18 %) and chain groceries (16 %). In fully adjusted models, those with lower education were more likely to purchase from corner stores or discount groceries than all other store types. Compared with White participants, African-Americans purchased more frequently from corner stores, discount groceries and chain groceries while Latinos purchased more frequently from discount groceries.Conclusions: The wide range of store types from which SSB were purchased and demographic differences in purchasing patterns suggest that broader methodological approaches are needed to adequately capture the impact of SSB taxes and other interventions aimed at reducing SSB consumption, particularly in low-income neighbourhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The US Department of Agriculture's Summer Food Service Program and Seamless Summer Option (summer nutrition programmes (SNP)) aim to relieve food insecurity for children and teens during summer months. More needs to be known about when and where SNP are available, and how availability varies by community characteristics, particularly in rural areas where food insecurity and reduced food access are more prevalent.Design: The present study examined the geographic availability of SNP and summer meal uptake rates in 2016, using state-wide administrative claims data.Setting: Public schools and SNP in California, USA.ParticipantsSchools (n 8842) and SNP (n 4685).Results: Urban counties were more likely than rural counties to have higher summer uptake rates, calculated as the percentage of summer meals served relative to eligible students utilizing school meal programmes during the academic school year, but uptake overall was low at 18·2 % of target populations. Geographic availability analyses showed that 63·9 % of public urban schools had an SNP available within 1·6 km (1 mile), but availability was significantly higher within the proximity of larger, higher-poverty high schools with diverse or majority non-White students, and those with higher school-year breakfast participation rates. Availability of an SNP within 16 km (10 miles) of rural schools averaged 68·1 % but was significantly higher around larger schools, higher-poverty schools and those with diverse or majority non-White students.Conclusions: While many communities have SNP available, much more work is needed to increase the availability of these programmes to reduce summer food insecurity for children, particularly in rural communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the minutes of the annual meeting of the Western Finance Association held in Anaheim, California on June 21, 1977. Subjects addressed during the meeting included acknowledgements to the Western Economic Association for assistance in meeting collaborations, amendment proposals to the association's constitution, and association elections.

Presently, foreign banks may enter the United States, depending on state law, in one of four forms:(1) Branches,(2) Agencies,(3) Affiliates, and(4) Representative offices. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective: To assess produce availability, quality and price in a large sample of food stores in low-income neighbourhoods in California.Design: Cross-sectional statewide survey.Setting: Between 2011 and 2015, local health departments assessed store type, WIC (Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children)/SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) participation, produce availability, quality and price of selected items in stores in low-income neighbourhoods. Secondary data provided reference chain supermarket produce prices matched by county and month. t Tests and ANOVA examined differences by store type; regression models examined factors associated with price.Subjects: Large grocery stores (n 231), small markets (n 621) and convenience stores (n 622) in 225 neighbourhoods.Results: Produce in most large groceries was rated high quality (97 % of fruits, 98 % of vegetables), but not in convenience stores (25 % fruits, 14 % vegetables). Small markets and convenience stores participating in WIC and/or SNAP had better produce availability, variety and quality than non-participating stores. Produce prices across store types were, on average, higher than reference prices from matched chain supermarkets (27 % higher in large groceries, 37 % higher in small markets, 102 % higher in convenience stores). Price was significantly inversely associated with produce variety, adjusting for quality, store type, and SNAP and WIC participation.Conclusions: The study finds that fresh produce is more expensive in low-income neighbourhoods and that convenience stores offer more expensive, poorer-quality produce than other stores. Variety is associated with price and most limited in convenience stores, suggesting more work is needed to determine how convenience stores can provide low-income consumers with access to affordable, high-quality produce. WIC and SNAP can contribute to the solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The present study examined food and beverage distributors' sourcing, placement and promotion of obesogenic (energy-dense, nutrient-poor) product categories from the perspective of small food store owners/managers. The obesogenic product categories of interest were savoury snacks, sugary beverages, sweet snacks, confectionery and frozen treats. Specifically, we examined how frequently distributors sourced these products, and the types of agreements and expectations they had for their placement and promotion. Differences were explored by store size and ethnicity. Fresh produce was used as a comparison when examining differences in frequency of sourcing only, with implications for healthy food access.Design: Survey research involving in-person interviews.Setting: Four urban areas in the USA: Baltimore, MD; Durham, NC; Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN; and San Diego, CA.Subjects: Seventy-two small food store owners/managers, 65 % consent rate.Results: Most distributors sourced obesogenic products weekly. Agreements to place products were predominantly informal (e.g. handshake) with sweet snack, confectionery and frozen treat distributors, and formal (e.g. contract) with savoury snack and sugary beverage distributors. Free-standing displays were the most common incentive provided by distributors and they expected some control over their placement and pricing. Free/discounted products and signage were also common incentives but slotting fees were not. Smaller stores and ethnic stores were less likely to receive various incentives, but among sweet snack distributors, they were more likely to control the price in ethnic v. non-ethnic stores.Conclusions: Obesogenic products are ubiquitous. Influencing what is made available to consumers in the retail food environment needs to consider the distributor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The Farmers' Market Fresh Fund Incentive Program is a policy, systems and environmental intervention to improve access to fresh produce for participants on governmental assistance in the USA. The current study examined factors associated with ongoing participation in this matched monetary incentive programme.Design: Relationship of baseline factors with number of Fresh Fund visits was assessed using Poisson regression. Mixed-effects modelling was used to explore changes in consumption of fruits and vegetables and diet quality.Setting: San Diego, California.Subjects: Recipients of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) who attended participating farmers' markets from 2010 to 2012 (n 7298).Results: Among those with participation for ≤6 months, factors associated with increased visits included reporting more daily servings of fruits and vegetables (F&V) at baseline, being Vietnamese or Asian/Pacific Islander, and eligibility because of SNAP/CalFresh or SSI (v. WIC). Among those who came for 6-12 months, being Asian/Pacific Islander, eligibility because of SNAP/CalFresh and enrolling in the autumn, winter or spring were associated with a greater number of Fresh Fund visits. Among those who came for >12 months, being male and eligibility because of SSI were associated with a greater number of visits. Overall, the odds of increasing number of servings of F&V consumed increased by 2 % per month, and the odds of improved perception of diet quality increased by 10 % per month.Conclusions: Sustaining and increasing Fresh Fund-type programme operations should be a top priority for future policy decisions concerning farmers' market use in low-income neighbourhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) are two of the more well-known food assistance programmes in the USA. The current study describes food consumption patterns of children aged 1-5 years living in households dually enrolled in these two programmes v. households enrolled only in WIC.Design: Food consumption and SNAP participation were assessed using data from the 2014 Survey of Los Angeles County (LAC) WIC Participants and the Follow-Up Survey of the same households that were also SNAP beneficiaries. Telephone interviews were conducted with WIC parents regarding each child's (i.e. beneficiary's) food consumption patterns. Follow-up interviews were conducted with those who reported receiving SNAP. Multivariable regression analyses were performed to assess the relationships between food and beverage consumption and dual v. single food assistance programme participation.Setting: LAC, California.Subjects: Children of WIC-enrolled households in LAC during 2014 (n 3248). This included a sub-sample of dual WIC- and SNAP-enrolled households (n 1295). Survey participants were the beneficiaries' parents.Results: Children from dually enrolled households consumed 1·03 (P<0·05) and 1·04 (P<0·01) more servings of fruits and vegetables daily respectively, 1·07 more sugar-sweetened beverages daily (P<0·001) and ate sweets/sweetened foods 1·04 more times daily (P<0·001) than children from households participating only in WIC.Conclusions: Results suggest that SNAP+WIC enrolment is associated with increased consumption of both healthy foods and foods containing minimal nutritional value. Complementary nutrition education efforts across the two programmes may help beneficiaries maximize healthful food purchases with SNAP dollars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The ability to use serving size information on food labels is important for managing age-related chronic conditions such as diabetes, obesity and cancer. Past research suggests that older adults are at risk for failing to accurately use this portion of the food label due to numeracy skills. However, the extent to which older adults pay attention to serving size information on packages is unclear. We compared the effects of numeracy and attention on age differences in accurate use of serving size information while individuals evaluated product healthfulness.Design: Accuracy and attention were assessed across two tasks in which participants compared nutrition labels of two products to determine which was more healthful if they were to consume the entire package. Participants' eye movements were monitored as a measure of attention while they compared two products presented side-by-side on a computer screen. Numeracy as well as food label habits and nutrition knowledge were assessed using questionnaires.Setting: Sacramento area, California, USA, 2013-2014.Subjects: Stratified sample of 358 adults, aged 20-78 years.Results: Accuracy declined with age among those older adults who paid less attention to serving size information. Although numeracy, nutrition knowledge and self-reported food label use supported accuracy, these factors did not influence age differences in accuracy.Conclusions: The data suggest that older adults are less accurate than younger adults in their use of serving size information. Age differences appear to be more related to lack of attention to serving size information than to numeracy skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: In the USA, adults of Korean descent tend to eat fewer vegetables than adults in South Korea. The present pilot study examined the feasibility of developing and implementing a faith-based intervention to improve knowledge, attitudes and intake of fruit and vegetables (F&V) for Koreans in the USA.Design: Feasibility pilot using a cluster-randomized intervention trial design. The multicomponent intervention included motivational interviewing sessions by telephone and church-based group activities.Setting: Eleven of the largest Korean churches in Southern California.Subjects: Adults (n 71) from the eleven Korean churches.Results: Feasibility was demonstrated for the study procedures, including recruitment of churches and individual participants. Allocating time throughout the study for church collaboration and having a study church coordinator to coordinate multiple churches were crucial. Participants' attendance at church activities (89 %) and participation by pastors and fellow churchgoers exceeded expectations. Participants' use of intervention materials was high (94 % or above) and satisfaction with coaching sessions was also high (75 % or above). Having a centralized coach trained in motivational interviewing, instead of one at each church, proved practical. Pilot results are promising for F&V knowledge, attitudes and behaviours. The intervention group improved knowledge and intake of the recommended amounts of F&V, above that of the control group.Conclusions: This pilot suggests that Koreans in the USA can be reached through their church and that a faith-based intervention study can be implemented to increase F&V intake. Preliminary results for the intervention appear promising but further research is needed to properly evaluate its efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies on maternal nutrition and childhood leukaemia risk have focused on the role of specific nutrients such as folate and have not considered broader measures of diet quality, which may better capture intake of diverse nutrients known to impact fetal development. We examined the relationship between maternal diet quality before pregnancy, as summarised by a diet quality index, and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) in a case–control study in California. Dietary intake in the year before pregnancy was assessed using FFQ in 681 ALL cases, 103 AML cases and 1076 matched controls. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate OR and 95 % CI for diet quality continuous score and quartiles (Q1–Q4). Higher maternal diet quality score was associated with reduced risk of ALL (OR 0·66; 95 % CI 0·47, 0·93 for Q4 v. Q1) and possibly AML (OR 0·42; 95 % CI 0·15, 1·15 for Q4 v. Q1). No single index component appeared to account for the association. The association of maternal diet quality with risk of ALL was stronger in children diagnosed under the age of 5 years and in children of women who did not report using vitamin supplements before pregnancy. These findings suggest that the joint effects of many dietary components may be important in influencing childhood leukaemia risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We estimated the prevalence of food insecurity among people who inject drugs (PWID) in Los Angeles and San Francisco and explored correlates of food insecurity. Design: A cross-sectional study that measured 30 d food insecurity using the US Adult Food Security Survey ten-item Module developed by the US Department of Agriculture. Food insecurity was defined as including low and very low food security. Setting: Two cities in the state of California, USA. Subjects: Male and female active PWID (n 777). Results: Among participants, 58% reported food insecurity and 41% reported very low food security. Food-insecure PWID were more likely to report being homeless (prevalence ratio (PR)=1·20; 95% CI 1·05, 1·37), chest pain in the past 12 months (PR=1·19; CI 1·06, 1·35), acquiring syringes from someone who goes to a syringe exchange programme (PR=1·27; 95% CI 1·13, 1·43) and feeling at risk for arrest for possession of drug paraphernalia (PR=1·30; 95% CI 1·15, 1·46). Conclusions: Current food insecurity was common among PWID in these two cities, yet few factors were independently associated with food insecurity. These data suggest that broad strategies to improve food access for this high-risk population are urgently needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Almost no previous research has examined the impact of the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Summer Food Service Program and related Seamless Summer Option, which provide meals and snacks to low-income children over the summer. The present study investigated whether geographic accessibility of summer meals programme sites (a proxy for programme participation) was associated with food insecurity for low-income households.Design: The study used data from the California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) and administrative data on summer meals sites in California. Geocoding was used to calculate driving time between CHIS households and nearby summer meals sites. Geographic accessibility was measured using a gravity model, which accounted for the spatially distributed supply of and demand for summer meals. Food insecurity and very low food security were measured using a standard six-item measure from the USDA.Subjects: Low-income families with children (n 5394).Setting: A representative surveillance study of non-institutionalized households in California.Results: Geographic accessibility was not associated with food insecurity. However, geographic accessibility was associated with a significantly lower probability of very low food security in the full sample and among households with younger children and those living in less urban areas.Conclusions: The USDA's summer meals programme may be effective at reducing the most severe form of food insecurity for low-income households with children. Expanding the number of summer meals sites, the number of meals served at sites and sites' hours of operation may be effective strategies to promote nutritional health over the summer months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individual differences in sleep patterns of children may have developmental origins. In the present study, two factors known to influence behavioural development, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) genotype and prenatal Fe-deficient (ID) diet, were examined for their influences on sleep patterns in juvenile rhesus monkeys. Sleep patterns were assessed based on a threshold for inactivity as recorded by activity monitors. Pregnant monkeys were fed diets containing either 100 parts per million (ppm) Fe (Fe sufficient, IS) or 10 ppm Fe (ID). At 3–4 months of age, male offspring were genotyped for polymorphisms of the MAOA gene that lead to high or low transcription. At 1 and 2 years of age, sleep patterns were assessed. Several parameters of sleep architecture changed with age. At 1 year of age, monkeys with the low-MAOA genotype demonstrated a trend towards more sleep episodes at night compared with those with the high-MAOA genotype. When monkeys reached 2 years of age, prenatal ID reversed this trend; ID in the low-MAOA group resulted in sleep fragmentation, more awakenings at night and more sleep episodes during the day when compared with prenatal IS in this genotype. The ability to consolidate sleep during the dark cycle was disrupted by prenatal ID, specifically in monkeys with the low-MAOA genotype. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Risk assessment differs from other medical interventions in that the welfare of the patient is not the immediate object of the intervention. However, improving the risk assessment process may reduce the chance of risk assessment itself being unjust. We explore the ethical arguments in relation to risk assessment as a medical intervention, drawing analogies, where applicable, with ethical arguments raised by general medical investigations. The article concludes by supporting the structured professional judgement approach as a method of risk assessment that is most consistent with the respect for principles of medical ethics. Recommendations are made for the future direction of risk assessment indicated by ethical theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveA high prevalence of food insecurity has persisted in the USA for the past two decades. Previous studies suggest that the association between food insecurity and obesity may vary by gender and race/ethnicity. We examined whether food insecurity was associated with BMI and obesity within gender and racial/ethnic groups in a large, diverse sample of low-income adults.DesignA cross-sectional analysis of a large population-based health survey. We compared the distribution of BMI and obesity by food security levels within gender and racial/ethnic categories.SettingData were derived from the 2003–2009 waves of the California Health Interview Survey.SubjectsThe study sample included 35 747 non-elderly adults with households ≤200 % of the federal poverty level.ResultsAmong Hispanic men, very low food security was associated with a 1·0 kg/m2 higher BMI (95 % CI 0·3, 1·7 kg/m2) and a 36 % higher prevalence of obesity (95 % CI 17, 58 %) after multivariate adjustment. Among Hispanic women, very low food security was associated with a 1·1 kg/m2 higher BMI (95 % CI 0·4, 1·9 kg/m2) and a 22 % higher prevalence of obesity (95 % CI 8, 38 %). Positive associations were also observed for Asian women and multi-racial men. No significant associations were observed for non-Hispanic whites, African Americans, Asian men or multi-racial women.ConclusionsOur results suggest that the association of food insecurity and obesity is limited to individuals of certain low-income, minority racial/ethnic groups. Whether targeted interventions to address food insecurity in these individuals may also decrease obesity risk deserves further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMO), complex sugars that are highly abundant in breast milk, block viral and bacterial attachment to the infant's intestinal epithelium and lower the risk of infections. We hypothesised that HMO also prevent infections with the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, as its major virulence factor is a lectin that facilitates parasite attachment and cytotoxicity and binds galactose (Gal) and N-acetyl-galactosamine. HMO contain Gal, are only minimally digested in the small intestine and reach the colon, the site of E. histolytica infection. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether HMO reduce E. histolytica attachment and cytotoxicity. Our in vitro results show that physiological concentrations of isolated, pooled HMO detach E. histolytica by more than 80 %. In addition, HMO rescue E. histolytica-induced destruction of human intestinal epithelial HT-29 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The cytoprotective effects were structure-specific. Lacto-N-tetraose with its terminal Gal rescued up to 80 % of the HT-29 cells, while HMO with fucose α1–2-linked to the terminal Gal had no effect. Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), which also contain terminal Gal and are currently added to infant formula to mimic some of the beneficial effects of HMO, completely abolished E. histolytica attachment and cytotoxicity at 8 mg/ml. Although our results need to be confirmed in vivo, they may provide one explanation for why breast-fed infants are at lower risk of E. histolytica infections. HMO and GOS are heat tolerant, stable, safe and in the case of GOS, inexpensive, which could make them valuable candidates as alternative preventive and therapeutic anti-amoebic agents. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study demonstrates how the structure of dispute resolution shapes the extent to which managerial and business values influence the meaning and implementation of consumer protection law, and consequently, the extent to which repeat players are advantaged. My analysis draws from, links, and contributes to two literatures that examine the relationship between organizational governance structures and law: neo-institutional studies of law and organizations and socio-legal studies of repeat players' advantages in disputing. Specifically, I compare an instance where powerful state consumer protection laws are resolved in private dispute resolution forums funded by automobile manufacturers but operated by independent third-party organizations ( California) with one where consumer disputes are resolved in public alternative dispute resolution processes run and administered by the state ( Vermont). Through in-depth interviews and participant observation in the training programs that dispute resolution arbitrators undergo in each state, I show how different dispute resolution structures operating in California and Vermont give different meanings to substantially similar lemon laws. Although my data do not allow me to establish a causal relationship, they strongly suggest that the form of the dispute resolution structure, and how business and state actors construct the meaning of lemon laws through these structures, have critical implications for the effectiveness of consumer protection laws for consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13), founded in 1980s Los Angeles by Salvadoran immigrant youth, is today one of the largest street gangs in North and Central America. In recent years the group has acquired a reputation for extreme brutality and has ostensibly mutated into a fast-expanding, transnational organized crime network with possible ties to international terrorists. Drawing on key concepts in gang research and multiple methodological tools, this article seeks to sharpen understanding of MS-13's structure and activities. While the group is active in many countries, it is transnational only in a symbolic manner, not in its configuration or span of authority. Impelled largely by Central American gang-suppression policies, MS-13 has evolved from a traditional street gang into a group with organized crime characteristics, but it remains a social phenomenon rooted in urban marginality. Ultimately, a more nuanced picture of Mara Salvatrucha can inform the search for more effective gang policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural experiments help to overcome some of the obstacles researchers face when making causal inferences in the social sciences. However, even when natural interventions are randomly assigned, some of the treatment–control comparisons made available by natural experiments may not be valid. We offer a framework for clarifying the issues involved, which are subtle and often overlooked. We illustrate our framework by examining four different natural experiments used in the literature. In each case, random assignment of the intervention is not sufficient to provide an unbiased estimate of the causal effect. Additional assumptions are required that are problematic. For some examples, we propose alternative research designs that avoid these conceptual difficulties. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Private ordering-i.e., development of extralegal forums and forms of dispute processing by nonhierarchical groups-has preoccupied legal economists for nearly three decades. According to the prevailing analysis, private orders grow in socially-flat market communities without any intervention by the state. This article challenges the received view on two fronts: First, it establishes a causal connection between the development of private orders and a social hierarchy. Second, the article demonstrates that the state often intentionally assumes a proactive role in the creation of these orders. To illustrate this two-pronged theory of private ordering, this article offers a detailed analysis of three well-known cases that have been considered prototypes of private ordering by market communities: the Diamond Dealers Club of New York, the kibbutz in Israel, and ranch owners in Shasta County, California. Finally, the article argues for a need to re-evaluate the feasibility and desirability of private ordering and privatization of law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]