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Background: This study tested whether the motivation gain in groups is the result of social compensation or the Köhler effect by examining scaled individual salaries of National Basketball Association (NBA) players. Both factors explain the positive effects of a group, unlike social loafing. However, differing causes in motivation gain relate to whether players are low or high performers and the Köhler effect or social compensation. Methods: To test motivation gain, this study used 11-year NBA statistical data of 3247 players by applying hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) and HLM 7.0 was used for analysis. The players' individual statistics and annual salaries were collected from the NBA and ESPN websites, respectively. Whereas previous studies have looked at motivation gain through track-and-field and swimming relay records, this study verified motivation gain through salary variations among NBA players and their affiliated teams. Results: The high performers, while selecting teams with larger performance gaps among team members, earned a higher salary than while selecting teams with lower performance gaps among team members. This study found that motivation gain existed in high performers, which can be interpreted as support for social compensation rather than the Köhler effect. Conclusions: We used our result to elucidate the basis for play-by-play decisions made by individuals and team behaviour. Our results are applicable for the enhancement of coaching strategies, ultimately improving team morale and performance. It can be interpreted that the motivation gains of high performers in the NBA are driven by the Cost Component of the Team member Effort Expenditure Model (TEEM), rather than the Expectancy and Value Components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: International migration is one of the factors resulting in the shortage of Human Resources for Health (HRH) in India. Literature suggests that migration is fuelled by the prospect of higher salaries available abroad. The extent of these salary differentials are unknown, and this study seeks to examine the salaries of selected HRH in India and four popular destination countries (United States of America, United Kingdom, Canada and the United Arab Emirates), whilst accounting for the in-country cost of living. This study will therefore determine truer financial incentives for Indian HRH to migrate abroad.Methods: A purchasing power parity (PPP) ratio is employed to equalise the international price of buying a representative basket of commonly bought goods (including food, entertainment, fuel and utilities). Using the PPP index, real differences in salaries are directly compared for selected work categories and different levels of work experience in the four respective countries.Results: Nurses in the USA can earn up to 82.7% more than their Indian counterparts. Nurses in Canada and the UAE reveal more modest salary differentials, yet still significant better off by up to 28 and 20% respectively. Only nurses in the UK are potentially materially worse off than nurses working in India. We observe significant potential PPP gains of up to 57.4, 99.1 and 94.4% for medical doctors in the USA, Canada and the UAE respectively. Medical specialists potentially experience the greatest income disparities with anaesthetists potentially earning up to 600% more than their counterparts in India. Radiologists operating in the UK and general surgeons working in the USA can potentially earn more than double that of their counterparts working in India. We observe more modest positive or negligible PPP gains in other selected countries for health specialists.Conclusion: Even when considering the differences in the cost of living, the financial incentive for selected cadres of Indian HRH to seek work abroad remains strong. The migration of Indian HRH to countries offering superior salaries makes it difficult for India to retain experienced health personal and compromises government efforts to render health care more accessible across the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The setting of realistic performance-based financing rewards necessitates not just knowledge of health workers’ salaries, but of the revenue that accrues from their additional income-generating activities. This study examined the coping mechanisms of health workers in the public health sector of Nasarawa and Ondo states in Nigeria to supplement their salaries and benefits; it also estimated the proportionate value of the revenues from those coping mechanisms in relation to the health workers’ official incomes. Methods: This study adopted a mixed-methods approach, consisting of semi-structured interviews, a review of policy documents, a survey using self-administered questionnaires, and the randomized response technique (RRT). In all, 170 health workers (86 in Ondo, 84 in Nasarawa) participated in the survey. In-depth interviews were conducted with 24 health workers (12 per state) and nine policy makers from both states. Results: The health workers perceived their salaries as inadequate, though most policy makers differed in this assessment. There appeared to be a considerable expenditure–income disparity among the respondents. Approximately 56% (n = 93) of the study population reported having additional earning arrangements: most reported non-medical activities such as farming and trading, but private practice was also frequently reported. Half of the respondents with additional earning arrangements stated that their income from those activities was the equivalent of half or more of their monthly salaries. Specifically, 35% (n = 32) said that they earned about half of their official monthly salaries and 15% (n = 14) reported earning the same or more than their monthly salaries from these activities. Other coping mechanisms used by the health workers included prioritizing activities that enabled the earning of per diems, collecting informal payments and gifts from patients, and pilfering drugs from facilities. Conclusions: Predatory and non-predatory mechanisms accounted for the health workers’ additional income. It may be difficult for the health workers to meet their expenses with their salaries and financial incentives; this highlights the need for the regulation of additional earnings and to implement targeted accountability mechanisms. This study indicates the value of using mixed methods when investigating sensitive issues. Future studies of this type should employ mixed methods for triangulation purposes to provide better insight into health workers’ responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]