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Background: The ascomycete fungus Podospora anserina has been appreciated for its targeted carbohydrate-active enzymatic arsenal. As a late colonizer of herbivorous dung, the fungus acts specifically on the more recalcitrant fraction of lignocellulose and this lignin-rich biotope might have resulted in the evolution of ligninolytic activities. However, the lignin-degrading abilities of the fungus have not been demonstrated by chemical analyses at the molecular level and are, thus far, solely based on genome and secretome predictions. To evaluate whether P. anserina might provide a novel source of lignin-active enzymes to tap into for potential biotechnological applications, we comprehensively mapped wheat straw lignin during fungal growth and characterized the fungal secretome. Results: Quantitative 13C lignin internal standard py-GC–MS analysis showed substantial lignin removal during the 7 days of fungal growth (24% w/w), though carbohydrates were preferably targeted (58% w/w removal). Structural characterization of residual lignin by using py-GC–MS and HSQC NMR analyses demonstrated that Cα-oxidized substructures significantly increased through fungal action, while intact β-O-4′ aryl ether linkages, p-coumarate and ferulate moieties decreased, albeit to lesser extents than observed for the action of basidiomycetes. Proteomic analysis indicated that the presence of lignin induced considerable changes in the secretome of P. anserina. This was particularly reflected in a strong reduction of cellulases and galactomannanases, while H2O2-producing enzymes clearly increased. The latter enzymes, together with laccases, were likely involved in the observed ligninolysis. Conclusions: For the first time, we provide unambiguous evidence for the ligninolytic activity of the ascomycete fungus P. anserina and expand the view on its enzymatic repertoire beyond carbohydrate degradation. Our results can be of significance for the development of biological lignin conversion technologies by contributing to the quest for novel lignin-active enzymes and organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Endo-xylanases are essential in degrading hemicellulose of various lignocellulosic substrates. Hemicellulose degradation by Geobacillus spp. is facilitated by the hemicellulose utilization (HUS) locus that is present in most strains belonging to this genus. As part of the HUS locus, the xynA gene encoding an extracellular endo-xylanase is one of the few secreted enzymes and considered to be the key enzyme to initiate hemicellulose degradation. Several Geobacillus endo-xylanases have been characterized for their optimum temperature, optimum pH and generation of degradation products. However, these analyses provide limited details on the mode of action of the enzymes towards various substrates resulting in a lack of understanding about their hydrolytic potential. Results: A HUS-locus associated gene (GtxynA1) from the thermophile Geobacillus thermodenitrificans T12 encodes an extracellular endo-xylanase that belongs to the family 10 glycoside hydrolases (GH10). The GtxynA1 gene was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The resulting endo-xylanase (termed GtXynA1) was purified to homogeneity and showed activity between 40 °C and 80 °C, with an optimum activity at 60 °C, while being active between pH 3.0 to 9.0 with an optimum at pH 6.0. Its thermal stability was high and GtXynA1 showed 85% residual activity after 1 h of incubation at 60 °C. Highest activity was towards wheat arabinoxylan (WAX), beechwood xylan (BeWX) and birchwood xylan (BiWX). GtXynA1 is able to degrade WAX and BeWX producing mainly xylobiose and xylotriose. To determine its mode of action, we compared the hydrolysis products generated by GtXynA1 with those from the well-characterized GH10 endo-xylanase produced from Aspergillus awamori (AaXynA). The main difference in the mode of action between GtXynA1 and AaXynA on WAX is that GtXynA1 is less hindered by arabinosyl substituents and can therefore release shorter oligosaccharides. Conclusions: The G. thermodenitrificans T12 endo-xylanase, GtXynA1, shows temperature tolerance up to 80 °C and high activity to a variety of xylans. The mode of action of GtXynA1 reveals that arabinose substituents do not hamper substrate degradation by GtXynA1. The extensive hydrolysis of branched xylans makes this enzyme particularly suited for the conversion of a broad range of lignocellulosic substrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many fungi boost the deconstruction of lignocellulosic plant biomass via oxidation using lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs). The application of LPMOs is expected to contribute to ecologically friendly conversion of biomass into fuels and chemicals. Moreover, applications of LPMO-modified cellulose-based products may be envisaged within the food or material industry. Results: Here, we show an up to 75-fold improvement in LPMO-driven cellulose degradation using polyphenol oxidase- activated lignin building blocks. This concerted enzymatic process involves the initial conversion of monophenols into diphenols by the polyphenol oxidase MtPPO7 from Myceliophthora thermophila C1 and the subsequent oxidation of cellulose by MtLPMO9B. Interestingly, MtPPO7 shows preference towards lignin-derived methoxylated monophenols. Sequence analysis of genomes of 336 Ascomycota and 208 Basidiomycota reveals a high correlation between MtPPO7 and AA9 LPMO genes. Conclusions: The activity towards methoxylated phenolic compounds distinguishes MtPPO7 from well-known PPOs, such as tyrosinases, and ensures that MtPPO7 is an excellent redox partner of LPMOs. The correlation between MtPPO7 and AA9 LPMO genes is indicative for the importance of the coupled action of different monooxygenases in the concerted degradation of lignocellulosic biomass. These results will contribute to a better understanding in both lignin deconstruction and enzymatic lignocellulose oxidation and potentially improve the exploration of eco-friendly routes for biomass utilization in a circular economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Lytic polysaccharide monooxgygenases (LPMOs) are known to boost the hydrolytic breakdown of lignocellulosic biomass, especially cellulose, due to their oxidative mechanism. For their activity, LPMOs require an electron donor for reducing the divalent copper cofactor. LPMO activities are mainly investigated with ascorbic acid as a reducing agent, but little is known about the effect of plant-derived reducing agents on LPMOs activity. Results: Here, we show that three LPMOs from the fungus Myceliophthora thermophila C1, MtLPMO9A, MtLPMO9B and MtLPMO9C, differ in their substrate preference, C1-/C4-regioselectivity and reducing agent specificity. MtLPMO9A generated C1- and C4-oxidized, MtLPMO9B C1-oxidized and MtLPMO9C C4-oxidized gluco-oligosaccharides from cellulose. The recently published MtLPMO9A oxidized, next to cellulose, xylan, β-(1 → 3, 1 → 4)-glucan and xyloglucan. In addition, MtLPMO9C oxidized, to a minor extent, xyloglucan and β-(1 → 3, 1 → 4)-glucan from oat spelt at the C4 position. In total, 34 reducing agents, mainly plant-derived flavonoids and lignin-building blocks, were studied for their ability to promote LPMO activity. Reducing agents with a 1,2-benzenediol or 1,2,3-benzenetriol moiety gave the highest release of oxidized and non-oxidized gluco-oligosaccharides from cellulose for all three MtLPMOs. Low activities toward cellulose were observed in the presence of monophenols and sulfur-containing compounds. Conclusions: Several of the most powerful LPMO reducing agents of this study serve as lignin building blocks or protective flavonoids in plant biomass. Our findings support the hypothesis that LPMOs do not only vary in their C1-/C4-regioselectivity and substrate specificity, but also in their reducing agent specificity. This work strongly supports the idea that the activity of LPMOs toward lignocellulosic biomass does not only depend on the ability to degrade plant polysaccharides like cellulose, but also on their specificity toward plant-derived reducing agents in situ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The production of biofuels and biochemicals from grass-type plant biomass requires a complete utilisation of the plant cellulose and hemicellulosic xylan via enzymatic degradation to their constituent monosaccharides. Generally, physical and/or thermochemical pretreatments are performed to enable access for the subsequent added carbohydrate-degrading enzymes. Nevertheless, partly substituted xylan structures remain after pretreatment, in particular the ones substituted with (4-O-methyl-)glucuronic acids (UAme). Hence, α-glucuronidases play an important role in the degradation of UAmexylan structures facilitating the complete utilisation of plant biomass. The characterisation of α-glucuronidases is a necessity to find the right enzymes to improve degradation of recalcitrant UAmexylan structures. Results: The mode-of-action of two α-glucuronidases was demonstrated, both obtained from the fungus Rasamsonia emersonii; one belonging to the glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 67 (ReGH67) and the other to GH115 (ReGH115). Both enzymes functioned optimal at around pH 4 and 70 °C. ReGH67 was able to release UAme from UAme-substituted xylo-oligosaccharides (UAmeXOS), but only the UAme linked to the non-reducing end xylosyl residue was cleaved. In particular, in a mixture of oligosaccharides, UAmeXOS having a degree of polymerisation (DP) of two were hydrolysed to a further extent than longer UAmeXOS (DP 3-4). On the contrary, ReGH115 was able to release UAme from both polymeric UAmexylan and UAmeXOS. ReGH115 cleaved UAme from both internal and non-reducing end xylosyl residues, with the exception of UAme attached to the non-reducing end of a xylotriose oligosaccharide. Conclusion: In this research, and for the first time, we define the mode-of-action of two α-glucuronidases from two different GH families both from the ascomycete R. emersonii. To date, only four α-glucuronidases classified in GH115 are characterised. ReGH67 showed limited substrate specificity towards only UAmeXOS, cleaving UAme only when attached to the non-reducing end xylosyl residue. ReGH115 was much less substrate specific compared to ReGH67, because UAme was released from both polymeric UAmexylan and UAmeXOS, from both internal and non-reducing end xylosyl residues. The characterisation of the mode-of-action of these two α-glucuronidases helps understand how R. emersonii attacks UAmexylan in plant biomass and the knowledge presented is valuable to improve enzyme cocktails for biorefinery applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many agricultural and industrial food by-products are rich in cellulose and xylan. Their enzymatic degradation into monosaccharides is seen as a basis for the production of biofuels and bio-based chemicals. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) constitute a group of recently discovered enzymes, classified as the auxiliary activity subgroups AA9, AA10, AA11 and AA13 in the CAZy database. LPMOs cleave cellulose, chitin, starch and ß-(1 ? 4)-linked substituted and non-substituted glucosyl units of hemicellulose under formation of oxidized gluco-oligosaccharides. Results: Here, we demonstrate a new LPMO, obtained from Myceliophthora thermophila C1 (MtLPMO9A). This enzyme cleaves ß-(1 ? 4)-xylosyl bonds in xylan under formation of oxidized xylo-oligosaccharides, while it simultaneously cleaves ß-(1 ? 4)-glucosyl bonds in cellulose under formation of oxidized gluco-oligosaccharides. In particular, MtLPMO9A benefits from the strong interaction between low substituted linear xylan and cellulose. MtLPMO9A shows a strong synergistic effect with endoglucanase I (EGI) with a 16-fold higher release of detected oligosaccharides, compared to the oligosaccharides release of MtLPMO9A and EGI alone. Conclusion: Now, for the first time, we demonstrate the activity of a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase (MtLPMO9A) that shows oxidative cleavage of xylan in addition to cellulose. The ability of MtLPMO9A to cleave these rigid regions provides a new paradigm in the understanding of the degradation of xylan-coated cellulose. In addition, MtLPMO9A acts in strong synergism with endoglucanase I. The mode of action of MtLPMO9A is considered to be important for loosening the rigid xylan-cellulose polysaccharide matrix in plant biomass, enabling increased accessibility to the matrix for hydrolytic enzymes. This discovery provides new insights into how to boost plant biomass degradation by enzyme cocktails for biorefinery applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Agaricus bisporus is commercially grown on compost, in which the available carbon sources consist mainly of plant-derived polysaccharides that are built out of various different constituent monosaccharides. The major constituent monosaccharides of these polysaccharides are glucose, xylose, and arabinose, while smaller amounts of galactose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose and mannose are also present. Results: In this study, genes encoding putative enzymes from carbon metabolism were identified and their expression was studied in different growth stages of A. bisporus. We correlated the expression of genes encoding plant and fungal polysaccharide modifying enzymes identified in the A. bisporus genome to the soluble carbohydrates and the composition of mycelium grown compost, casing layer and fruiting bodies. Conclusions: The compost grown vegetative mycelium of A. bisporus consumes a wide variety of monosaccharides. However, in fruiting bodies only hexose catabolism occurs, and no accumulation of other sugars was observed. This suggests that only hexoses or their conversion products are transported from the vegetative mycelium to the fruiting body, while the other sugars likely provide energy for growth and maintenance of the vegetative mycelium. Clear correlations were found between expression of the genes and composition of carbohydrates. Genes encoding plant cell wall polysaccharide degrading enzymes were mainly expressed in compost-grown mycelium, and largely absent in fruiting bodies. In contrast, genes encoding fungal cell wall polysaccharide modifying enzymes were expressed in both fruiting bodies and vegetative mycelium, but different gene sets were expressed in these samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The white-rot fungi Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (Cs), Pleurotus eryngii (Pe), and Lentinula edodes (Le) have been shown to be high-potential species for selective delignification of plant biomass. This delignification improves polysaccharide degradability, which currently limits the efficient lignocellulose conversion into biochemicals, biofuels, and animal feed. Since selectivity and time efficiency of fungal delignification still need optimization, detailed understanding of the underlying mechanisms at molecular level is required. The recently developed methodologies for lignin quantification and characterization now allow for the in-depth mapping of fungal modification and degradation of lignin and, thereby, enable resolving underlying mechanisms. Results: Wheat straw treated by two strains of Cs (Cs1 and Cs12), Pe (Pe3 and Pe6) and Le (Le8 and Le10) was characterized using semi-quantitative py-GC–MS during fungal growth (1, 3, and 7 weeks). The remaining lignin after 7 weeks was quantified and characterized using 13C lignin internal standard based py-GC–MS and whole cell wall HSQC NMR. Strains of the same species showed similar patterns of lignin removal and degradation. Cs and Le outperformed Pe in terms of extent and selectivity of delignification (Cs ≥ Le >> Pe). The highest lignin removal [66% (w/w); Cs1] was obtained after 7 weeks, without extensive carbohydrate degradation (factor 3 increased carbohydrate-to-lignin ratio). Furthermore, though after treatment with Cs and Le comparable amounts of lignin remained, the structure of the residual lignin vastly differed. For example, Cα-oxidized substructures accumulated in Cs treated lignin up to 24% of the total aromatic lignin, a factor two higher than in Le-treated lignin. Contrarily, ferulic acid substructures were preferentially targeted by Le (and Pe). Interestingly, Pe-spent lignin was specifically depleted of tricin (40% reduction). The overall subunit composition (H:G:S) was not affected by fungal treatment. Conclusions: Cs and Le are both able to effectively and selectively delignify wheat straw, though the underlying mechanisms are fundamentally different. We are the first to identify that Cs degrades the major β-O-4 ether linkage in grass lignin mainly via Cβ–O–aryl cleavage, while Cα–Cβ cleavage of inter-unit linkages predominated for Le. Our research provides a new insight on how fungi degrade lignin, which contributes to further optimizing the biological upgrading of lignocellulose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]