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Background: The management of febrile neutropenia (FN) in pediatric cancer patients has traditionally been conducted in a hospital setting. However, recent evidence has indicated that outpatient management of FN can be equally effective compared to inpatient care. Based on this evidence, we conducted a cost-minimization analysis (CMA) specifically focused on pediatric cancer patients in Mexico. Methods: A piggy-back study was conducted during the execution of a non-inferiority clinical trial that compared outpatient treatment to inpatient treatment for FN in children with cancer. A CMA was performed from a societal perspective using patient-level data. In the previous study, we observed that step-down oral outpatient management of low-risk FN was as safe and effective as inpatient intravenous management. Direct and indirect costs were collected prospectively. The costs were adjusted for inflation and converted to US dollars, with values standardized to July 2022 costs. Statistical analysis using bootstrap methods was employed to obtain robust estimations for decision-making within the Mexican public health care system. Results: A total of 117 FN episodes were analyzed, with 60 in the outpatient group and 57 in the inpatient group; however, complete cost data were available for only 115 FN episodes. The analysis revealed an average savings of $1,087 per FN episode managed on an outpatient basis, representing a significant 92% reduction in total cost per FN episode compared to inpatient treatment. Length of hospital stay and inpatient consultations emerged as the primary cost drivers within the inpatient care group. Conclusion: This CMA demonstrates that the step-down outpatient management approach is cost-saving when compared to inpatient management of FN in pediatric cancer patients. The mean difference observed between the treatment groups provides support for decision-making within the public health care system, as outpatient management of FN allows for substantial cost savings without compromising patient health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a considerable threat to the economics of patients, health systems, and society. Objectives: This meta-analysis aims to quantitatively assess the global economic burden of COVID-19. Methods: A comprehensive search was performed in the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases to identify studies examining the economic impact of COVID-19. The selected studies were classified into two categories based on the cost-of-illness (COI) study approach: top-down and bottom-up studies. The results of top-down COI studies were presented by calculating the average costs as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) and health expenditures. Conversely, the findings of bottom-up studies were analyzed through meta-analysis using the standardized mean difference. Results: The implemented search strategy yielded 3271 records, of which 27 studies met the inclusion criteria, consisting of 7 top-down and 20 bottom-up studies. The included studies were conducted in various countries, including the USA (5), China (5), Spain (2), Brazil (2), South Korea (2), India (2), and one study each in Italy, South Africa, the Philippines, Greece, Iran, Kenya, Nigeria, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The results of the top-down studies indicated that indirect costs represent 10.53% of GDP, while the total estimated cost accounts for 85.91% of healthcare expenditures and 9.13% of GDP. In contrast, the bottom-up studies revealed that the average direct medical costs ranged from US $1264 to US $79,315. The meta-analysis demonstrated that the medical costs for COVID-19 patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) were approximately twice as high as those for patients in general wards, with a range from 0.05 to 3.48 times higher. Conclusions: Our study indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic has imposed a significant economic burden worldwide, with varying degrees of impact across countries. The findings of our study, along with those of other research, underscore the vital role of economic consequences in the post-COVID-19 era for communities and families. Therefore, policymakers and health administrators should prioritize economic programs and accord them heightened attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Advancing healthcare access and quality for underserved populations requires a diverse, culturally competent interprofessional workforce. However, high educational debt may influence career choice of healthcare professionals. In the United States, health professions lack insight into the maximum educational debt that can be supported by current entry-level salaries. The purpose of this interprofessional economic analysis was to examine whether average educational debt for US healthcare graduates is supportable by entry-level salaries. Additionally, the study explored whether trainees from minoritized backgrounds graduate with more educational debt than their peers in physical therapy. Methods: The study modeled maximum educational debt service ratios for 12 healthcare professions and 6 physician specialties, incorporating profession-specific estimates of entry-level salary, salary growth, national average debt, and 4 loan repayment scenarios offered by the US Department of Education Office of Student Financial Aid. Net present value (NPV) provided an estimate for lifetime "economic power" for the modeled careers. The study used a unique data source available from a single profession (physical therapy, N = 4,954) to examine whether educational debt thresholds based on the repayment model varied between minoritized groups and non-minoritized peers. Results: High salary physician specialties (e.g. obstetrics/gynecology, surgery) and professions without graduate debt (e.g. registered nurse) met debt ratio targets under any repayment plan. Professions with strong salary growth and moderate debt (e.g. physician assistant) required extended repayment plans but had high career NPV. Careers with low salary growth and high debt relative to salary (e.g. physical therapy) had career NPV at the lowest range of modeled professions. 29% of physical therapy students graduated with more debt than could be supported by entry-level salaries. Physical therapy students from minoritized groups graduated with 10–30% more debt than their non-minoritized peers. Conclusions: Graduates from most healthcare professions required extended repayment plans (higher interest) to meet debt ratio benchmarks. For several healthcare professions, low debt relative to salary protected career NPV. Students from minoritized groups incurred higher debt than their peers in physical therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The costs and benefits of an intervention within the intervention testing phase may differ from those experienced when that intervention is implemented and delivered at scale. Yet limited empirical work has been undertaken to explore how economic constructs related to implementation and scale-up might have an impact on intervention cost. The aim of this study was to explore the potential economic impacts of implementation and scale-up on a healthy weight and body image intervention tested in a Type II translational research trial.Methods: The Supporting Healthy Image, Nutrition and Exercise (SHINE) study is a cluster randomised controlled trial, aiming to deliver universal education about healthy nutrition, physical activity and wellbeing behaviours to adolescents in Australian secondary schools. Data on the cost of the intervention were collected alongside the trial using standard micro-costing techniques. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key intervention stakeholders to explore the potential economic impacts of implementation and scale-up. Thematic content analysis was undertaken by two authors.Results: Fifteen intervention group schools participated in the 8-week online intervention targeting students in 2019 (99 Grade 7 classes; 2,240 students). Booster sessions were delivered during one class session in Grades 8 and 9, in 2020 and 2021 respectively. Time costs of intervention delivery and co-ordination comprised the majority (90%) of intervention cost as per the trial, along with costs associated with travel for intervention training and equipment. Themes related to the benefit of the intervention emerged from interviews with six intervention stakeholders, including the potential for economies of scale afforded by online delivery. Contextual themes that may have an impact on intervention implementation and scale included acceptability across all school sectors, availability and reliability of IT infrastructure for intervention delivery and variations in population characteristics. A number of key alterations to the intervention program emerged as important in supporting and sustaining intervention scale-up. In addition, significant implementation costs were identified if the intervention was to be successfully implemented at scale.Conclusions: The findings from this study provide important information relevant to decisions on progression to a Type III implementation trial, including budget allocation, and will inform modelled economic evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) substantially increases health-related costs. This study investigates direct medical costs and characterizes the caregiver burden across AD stages. Methods: This study analyzed data from the French Primary Health Insurance Fund claims database and reflected this public payer perspective. Outpatients (N = 1998) visiting a memory clinic at Lyon University Hospital in France between 2014 and 2019 were included. Real healthcare costs (ie, ambulatory medicine, paramedical care, pharmaceutical treatment, public and private hospital stays, and medical transportation) were collected for patients 1 year prior to the date of the first memory visit and 2 years following the first visit (reference year: 2019). Patients were grouped based on a clinical diagnosis of cognitively normal with a subjective cognitive complaint (SCC), all-cause mild cognitive impairment (MCI), or AD dementia. The severity of AD dementia was defined by the Mini-Mental State Examination score. Caregiver burden was measured using the mini Zarit Burden Interview. A generalized linear model was used for statistical analyses. Other patient nonmedical and indirect costs and caregiver costs were not included. Results: The study sample included patients with SCC (n = 640), MCI (n = 630), mild (n = 212), moderate (n = 256), or moderately severe/severe AD dementia (n = 260). One year after the first consultation, mean total costs were higher with progressive cognitive deficit, with little difference between dementia groups (SCC = €8028; MCI = €9758; mild AD dementia = €10,558; moderate AD dementia = €10,544; moderately severe/severe AD dementia = €10,345; P <.001). Public hospital stays comprised the majority of direct medical costs during the first semester following the visit (49.4% of the total costs), regardless of the severity of cognitive deficit. Caregiver burden increased with the severity of cognitive deficit (P <.0001). Conclusions: Direct medical costs and caregiver burden rose from SCC to AD dementia; in patients with AD dementia, the direct medical costs increased over the 2 years after the first consultation. These results, in conjunction with data from other care components, will be critical to elucidate the potential economic value of a therapeutic intervention that slows AD progression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The growing demand for LTC (Long-term care) services for disabled elderly has become a daunting task for countries worldwide, especially China, where population aging is particularly severe. According to CSY (China Statistical Yearbook,2019), the elderly aged 65 or above has reached 167 million in 2018, and the number of disabled elderly is as high as 54%. Germany and other countries have alleviated the crisis by promoting the public LTCI (Long-Term Care Insurance) system since the 1990s, while China's public LTCI system formal pilot only started in 2016. Therefore, the development of the public LTCI system has gradually become a hot topic for scholars in various countries, including China.Methods: This review has been systematically sorted the existing related literature to discuss the development of public LTCI (Long-Term Care Insurance)system form four aspects, namely, the comparison of public LTCI systems in different countries, the influence of public LTCI, challenge of public LTCI, and the relationship between public LTCI and private LTCI. We searched some databases including Web of Science Core Collection, Medline, SCOPUS, EBSCO, EMBASE, ProQuest and PubMed from January 2008 to September 2020. The quality of 38 quantitative and 21 qualitative articles was evaluated using the CASP(Critical Appraisal Skills Programme) critical evaluation checklist.Results: The review systematically examines the development of public LTCI system from four aspects, namely, the comparison of public LTCI systems in different countries, the influence of public LTCI, the challenge of public LTCI, and the relationship between public LTCI and private LTCI. For example, LTCI has a positive effect on the health and life quality of the disabled elderly. However, the role of LTCI in alleviating the financial burden on families with the disabled elderly may be limited.Conclusion: Some policy implications on the future development of China's LTCI system can be obtained. For example, the government should fully consider the constraints such as price rise, the elderly disability rate, and the substantial economic burden. It also can strengthen the effective combination of public LTCI and private LTCI. It does not only help to expand the space for its theoretical research but also to learn the experiences in the practice of the LTCI system in various countries around the world. It will significantly help the smooth development and further promote the in-depth reform of the LTCI system in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The initial days of a Medicare-covered skilled nursing facility (SNF) stay may have no cost-sharing or daily copayments depending on beneficiaries' enrollment in traditional Medicare or Medicare Advantage. Some policymakers have advocated imposing first-dollar cost-sharing to reduce post-acute expenditures. We examined the relationship between first-dollar cost-sharing for a SNF stay and use of inpatient and SNF services.Methods: We identified seven Medicare Advantage plans that introduced daily SNF copayments of $25-$150 in 2009 or 2010. Copays began on the first day of a SNF admission. We matched these plans to seven matched control plans that did not introduce first-dollar cost-sharing. In a difference-in-differences analysis, we compared changes in SNF and inpatient utilization for the 172,958 members of intervention and control plans.Results: In intervention plans the mean annual number of SNF days per 100 continuously enrolled inpatients decreased from 768.3 to 750.6 days when cost-sharing changes took effect. Control plans experienced a concurrent increase: 721.7 to 808.1 SNF days per 100 inpatients (adjusted difference-in-differences: -87.0 days [95% CI (-112.1,-61.9)]). In intervention plans, we observed no significant changes in the probability of any SNF service use or the number of inpatient days per hospitalized member relative to concurrent trends among control plans.Conclusions: Among several strategies Medicare Advantage plans can employ to moderate SNF use, first-dollar SNF cost-sharing may be one influential factor.Trial Registration: Not applicable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although it has long been known that a broad range of factors beyond medical diagnoses affect health and health services use, it has been unclear whether additional income can decrease health service use. We examined whether Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) receipt is associated with subsequent nursing home entry among low income older adults.Methods: We examined the 77,678 older adults dually eligible for Medicaid and Medicare in Maryland, 2010-2012. Zero inflated negative binomial regression, adjusting for demographic and health factors, tested the association of either lagged SNAP enrollment or lagged benefit amount with nursing home admission. We used Heckman two-step model results to calculate potential savings of SNAP enrollment through reduced nursing home admissions and reduced duration.Results: Only 53.4% received SNAP in 2012, despite being income-eligible. SNAP participants had a 23% reduced odds of nursing home admission than nonparticipants (95% CI: 0.75-0.78). For SNAP participants, an additional $10 of monthly SNAP assistance was associated with lower odds of admission (OR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.93-0.93), and fewer days stay among those admitted (IRR = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.98-0.99). Providing SNAP to all 2012 sample nonparticipants could be associated with $34 million in cost savings in Maryland.Conclusions: SNAP is underutilized and may reduce costly nursing home use among high-risk older adults. This study has policy implications at the State and Federal levels which include expanding access to SNAP and enhancing SNAP amounts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Health care systems around the world have started to develop pharmacists prescribing for minor ailments (PPMA) programs. These programs aim to improve the efficiency of care, reduce physician visits, and increase the accessibility to prescription medication (Rx). This study performed an economic impact analysis of the pharmacists prescribing for minor ailments program in Saskatchewan. Methods: We measured costs for the program and the alternative scenario (i.e. no PPMA program) from a public payer and societal perspective, using primary data on pharmacists prescribing consultations in Saskatchewan. Furthermore, we calculated public payer and societal savings, and return on investment ratios for the program, as well as projecting the costs and benefits over the next 5 years. Results: Overall, we found that from a societal perspective, the Saskatchewan PPMA program saved the province approximately $546,832 in 2014, while according to the public payer perspective, the program was only marginally cost-saving in 2014. After 5 years of implementation, from a societal perspective, cumulative cost savings were projected to be $3,482,660, and the return on investment ratio was estimated to be 2.53. Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that this type of program may prove cost-saving and lead to improved access to the health care system in Canada, especially if savings to society are considered. This type of PPMA program may prove economically feasible and beneficial in many countries considering expanding pharmacists scope of practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) are defined by the provision of primary care services, the relationship between the intensity of primary care and population-level utilization and costs of health care services has not been examined during early implementation of Medicare Shared Savings Program (MSSP) ACOs. Our objective was to evaluate the association between primary care focus and healthcare utilization and spending in the first performance period of the Medicare Shared Savings Program (MSSP) Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs).Methods: In this retrospective cohort study, we divided the 220 MSSP ACOs into quartiles of primary care focus based on the percentage of all ambulatory evaluation and management services delivered by a PCP (internist, family physician, or geriatrician). Using multivariable regression, we evaluated rates of utilization and spending during the initial performance period, adjusting for the percentage of non-white patients, region, number of months enrolled in the MSSP, number of beneficiary person years, percentage of dual eligible beneficiaries and percentage of beneficiaries over the age of 74.Results: The proportion of ambulatory evaluation and management services delivered by a PCP ranged from <38% (lowest quartile, ACOs with least PCP focus) to >46% (highest quartile, ACOs with greatest PCP focus). ACOs in the highest quartile of PCP focus had higher adjusted rates of utilization of acute care hospital admissions (328 per 1000 person years vs 292 per 1000 person years, p = 0.01) and emergency department visits (756 vs 680 per 1000 person years, p = 0.02) compared with ACOs in the lowest quartile of PCP focus. ACOs in the highest quartile of PCP focus achieved no greater savings per beneficiary relative to their spending benchmarks ($142 above benchmark vs $87 below benchmark, p = 0.13).Conclusions: Primary care focus was not associated with increased savings or lower utilization of healthcare during the initial implementation of MSSP ACOs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As the emphasis in health reform shifts to value-based payments, especially through multi-payer initiatives supported by the U.S. Center for Medicare & Medicaid Innovation, and with the increasing availability of statewide all-payer claims databases, the need for an all-payer, "whole-population" approach to facilitate the reporting of utilization, cost, and quality measures has grown. However, given the disparities between the different populations served by Medicare, Medicaid, and commercial payers, risk-adjustment methods for addressing these differences in a single measure have been a challenge.Methods: This study evaluated different levels of risk adjustment for primary care practice populations - from basic adjustments for age and gender to a more comprehensive "full model" risk-adjustment method that included additional demographic, payer, and health status factors. It applied risk adjustment to populations attributed to patient-centered medical homes (283,153 adult patients and 78,162 pediatric patients) in the state of Vermont that are part of the Blueprint for Health program. Risk-adjusted expenditure and utilization outcomes for calendar year 2014 were reported in 102 adult and 56 pediatric primary-care comparative practice profiles.Results: Using total expenditures as the dependent variable for the adult population, the r2 for the model adjusted for age and gender was 0.028. It increased to 0.265 with the additional adjustment for 3M Clinical Risk Groups and to 0.293 with the full model. For the adult population at the practice level, the no-adjustment model had the highest variation as measured by the coefficient of variation (18.5) compared to the age and gender model (14.8); the age, gender, and CRG model (13.0); and the full model (11.7). Similar results were found for the pediatric population practices.Conclusions: Results indicate that more comprehensive risk-adjustment models are effective for comparing cost, utilization, and quality measures across multi-payer populations. Such evaluations will become more important for practices, many of which do not distinguish their patients by payer type, and for the implementation of incentive-based or alternative payment systems that depend on "whole-population" outcomes. In Vermont, providers, accountable care organizations, policymakers, and consumers have used Blueprint profiles to identify priorities and opportunities for improving care in their communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To examine key factors influencing chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients' total expenditure and offer recommendations on how to reduce total cost of CKD care without compromising quality.Methods: Using the 2002-2011 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) data, our cross-sectional study analyzed 197 patient records-79 patients with one record and 59 with two entries per patient (138 unique patients). We used three patient groups, based on international statistical classification of diseases version 9 code for condition (ICD9CODX) classification, to focus inference from the analysis: (a) non-dialysis dependent CKD, (b) dialysis and (c) transplant. Covariate information included region, demographic, co-morbid conditions and types of services. We used descriptive methods and multivariate generalized linear models to understand the impact of cost drivers. We compared actual and predicted CKD cost of care data using a hold-out sample of nine, randomly selected patients to validate the models.Results: Total costs were significantly affected by treatment type, with dialysis being significantly higher than non-dialysis and transplant groups. Costs were highest in the West region of the U.S. Average costs for patients with public insurance were significantly higher than patients with private insurance (p < .0743), and likewise, for patients with co-morbid conditions over those without co-morbid conditions (p < .001).Conclusions: Managing CKD patients both before and after the onset of dialysis treatment and managing co-morbid conditions in individuals with CKD are potential sources of substantial cost savings in the care of CKD patients. Comparing total costs pre and post the United States Affordable Care Act could provide invaluable insights into managing the cost-quality tradeoff in CKD care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In response to increasing fiscal pressures, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) sought to reduce Medicare Advantage plan expenses by restructuring the bidding and payment processes. The purpose of this study is to assess the effects of the ACA's payment freeze and restructuring of the bidding and payment processes on favorable risk selection in Medicare Advantage plan enrollment (objective 1) and changes in the health status of beneficiaries enrolled in Medicare Advantage plans over time (objective 2).Methods: We used the Medicare Health Outcome Survey baseline data (2007→2013) for analyses of the first objective (7 cohorts, 1.7 million beneficiaries) and the linked baseline and follow-up data (2007-2009→2011-2013) for analyses of the second objective (5 cohorts, 0.5 million beneficiaries). To examine favorable risk selection we used the following outcomes: self-rated health, falls, balance problems, falls management, frailty, and morbidity. To examine changes in beneficiary health status over time, we examined changes (over time) in these same outcomes. The focal independent variable is the policy implementation measure, which is time dependent and measures the accumulation of changes to Medicare Advantage payment policies resulting from the ACA. Multiple regression models were developed to examine the relationship between ACA implementation and outcomes of interest.Results: In terms of favorable selection, individuals enrolled in Medicare Advantage plans post-ACA have, on average, better self-rated health (b = 0.003, p < 0.01), lower odds of falls (AOR = 0.981, p < 0.001), higher odds of falls management (AOR = 1.040, p < 0.001), lower frailty risks (IRR = 0.983, p < 0.001), and lower risks of comorbidities (IRR = 0.989, p < 0.001). In terms of health status changes over time, the results indicate that in the post-ACA period, beneficiaries reported better self-rated health (b = 0.028, p < 0.001), lower odds of falls (AOR = 0.965, p < 0.001), lower odds of balance problems (AOR = 0.958, p < 0.001), lower odds of falls management (AOR = 0.981, p < 0.05), lower frailty risks (IRR = 0.944, p < 0.001), and lower risks of comorbidity (IRR = 0.986, p < 0.001) at follow up compared to the same risks at baseline.Conclusions: These findings suggest that as the Medicare Advantage payment policies in the ACA were being implemented, plans may have engaged in favorable selection activities, yet beneficiaries exhibited more favorable health outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Little is known about the impact of joining an Accountable Care Organization (ACO) on primary care provider organization's costs. The purpose of this study was to determine whether joining an ACO is associated with an increase in a Rural Health Clinic's (RHC's) cost per visit.Methods: The analyses focused on cost per visit in 2012 and 2013 for RHCs that joined an ACO in 2012 and cost per visit in 2013 for RHCs that joined an ACO in 2013. The RHCs were located in nine states. Data were obtained from Medicare Cost Reports. The analysis was conducted taking a treatment effects approach where the treatment is joining an ACO. Propensity-score matching was employed to provide multiple single and pooled estimates of the average treatment effect on the treated.Results: Four-hundred thirty four to 544 RHCs (depending on the type of analysis and the variables used) were used in the several analyses. Seven of the RHCs joined an ACO in 2012 and 14 joined an ACO in 2013. The mean cost per visit for RHCs that did not join an ACO rose 4.40 % from 2011 to 2012 whereas the mean cost per visit for RHCs that joined an ACO rose by triple: 13.5 %. All of the pooled estimates of the average treatment effect on the treated from the propensity-score matching showed that joining an ACO was associated with higher mean cost per visit. The range of the estimated mean cost per visit differences was $17.19 (p value = 0.00) to $25.19 (p value = 0.00).Conclusions: This study is one of the first to describe the cost of ACO participation from the perspective of primary care provider organizations. It appears that for at least one type of primary care provider - the RHC - there are substantial costs associated with ACO participation during the first two years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: It is not known if there is a differential impact on Alzheimer's disease (AD) diagnosis and outcomes if/when patients are diagnosed with cognitive decline by specialists versus non-specialists. This study examined the cost trajectories of Medicare beneficiaries initially diagnosed by specialists compared to similar patients who received their diagnosis in primary care settings.Methods: Patients with ≥2 claims for AD were selected from de-identified administrative claims data for US Medicare beneficiaries (5 % random sample). The earliest observed diagnosis of cognitive decline served as the index date. Patients were required to have continuous Medicare coverage for ≥12 months pre-index (baseline) and ≥12 months following the first AD diagnosis, allowing for up to 3 years from index to AD diagnosis. Time from index date to AD diagnosis was compared between those diagnosed by specialists (i.e., neurologist, psychiatrist, or geriatrician) versus non-specialists using Kaplan-Meier analyses with log-rank tests. Patient demographics, Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) during baseline, and annual all-cause medical costs (reimbursed by Medicare) in baseline and follow-up periods were compared across propensity-score matched cohorts.Results: Patients first diagnosed with cognitive decline by specialists (n = 2593) were younger (78.8 versus 80.8 years old), more likely to be male (40 % versus 34 %), and had higher CCI scores and higher medical costs at baseline than those diagnosed by non-specialists (n = 13,961). However, patients diagnosed by specialists had a significantly shorter time to AD diagnosis, both before and after matching (mean [after matching]: 3.5 versus 4.6 months, p < 0.0001). In addition, patients diagnosed by specialists had significantly lower average total all-cause medical costs in the first 12 months after their index date, a finding that persisted after matching ($19,824 versus $25,863, p < 0.0001). Total per-patient annual medical costs were similar for the two groups starting in the second year post-index.Conclusions: Before and after matching, patients diagnosed by a specialist had a shorter time to AD diagnosis and incurred lower costs in the year following the initial cognitive decline diagnosis. Differences in costs converged during subsequent years. This suggests that seeking care from specialists may yield more timely diagnosis, appropriate care and reduced costs among those with cognitive decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Obesity is one of the only modifiable risk factors for both incidence and progression of Osteoarthritis (OA). So there is increasing interest from a public health perspective in addressing obesity in the management of OA. While evidence of the efficacy of intereventions designed to address obesity in OA populations continues to grow, little is known about their economic credentials. The aim of this study is to conduct a scoping review of: (i) the published economic evidence assessing the economic impact of obesity in OA populations; (ii) economic evaluations of interventions designed to explicitly address obesity in the prevention and management of OA in order to determine which represent value for money. Besides describing the current state of the literature, the study highlights research gaps and identifies future research priorities.Methods: In July 2014, a search of the peer reviewed literature, published in English, was undertaken for the period January 1975 - July 2014 using Medline Complete (Ebscohost), Embase, Econlit, Global Health, Health Economics Evaluation Database (HEED), all Cochrane Library databases as well as the grey literature using Google and reference lists of relevant studies. A combination of key search terms was used to identify papers assessing the economic impact of obesity in OA or economic evaluations conducted to assess the efficiency of obesity interventions for the prevention or management of OA.Results: 14 studes were identified; 13 were cost burden studies assessing the impact of obesity as a predictor for higher costs in Total Joint Arthroplasty (TJA) patients and one a cost-effectiveness study of an intervention designed to address obesity in the managment of mild to moderate OA patients.Conclusion: The majority of the economic studies conducted are cost burden studies. While there is some evidence of the association between severe obesity and excess hospital costs for TJA patients, heterogeneity in studies precludes definitive statements about the strength of the association. With only one economic evaluation to inform policy and practice, there is a need for future research into the cost-effectiveness of obesity interventions designed both for prevention or management of OA along the disease spectrum and over the life course. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Government- and charity-funded medical research and private sector research and development (R&D) are widely held to be complements. The only attempts to measure this complementarity so far have used data from the United States of America and are inevitably increasingly out of date. This study estimates the magnitude of the effect of government and charity biomedical and health research expenditure in the United Kingdom (UK), separately and in total, on subsequent private pharmaceutical sector R&D expenditure in the UK.Methods: The results for this study are obtained by fitting an econometric vector error correction model (VECM) to time series for biomedical and health R&D expenditure in the UK for ten disease areas (including 'other') for the government, charity and private sectors. The VECM model describes the relationship between public (i.e. government and charities combined) sector expenditure, private sector expenditure and global pharmaceutical sales as a combination of a long-term equilibrium and short-term movements.Results: There is a statistically significant complementary relationship between public biomedical and health research expenditure and private pharmaceutical R&D expenditure. A 1% increase in public sector expenditure is associated in the best-fit model with a 0.81% increase in private sector expenditure. Sensitivity analysis produces a similar and statistically significant result with a slightly smaller positive elasticity of 0.68. Overall, every additional £1 of public research expenditure is associated with an additional £0.83-£1.07 of private sector R&D spend in the UK; 44% of that additional private sector expenditure occurs within 1 year, with the remainder accumulating over decades. This spillover effect implies a real annual rate of return (in terms of economic impact) to public biomedical and health research in the UK of 15-18%. When combined with previous estimates of the health gain that results from public medical research in cancer and cardiovascular disease, the total rate of return would be around 24-28%.Conclusion: Overall, this suggests that government and charity funded research in the UK crowds in additional private sector R&D in the UK. The implied historical returns from UK government and charity funded investment in medical research in the UK compare favourably with the rates of return achieved on investments in the rest of the UK economy and are greatly in excess of the 3.5% real annual rate of return required by the UK government to public investments generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: All authorities recommend against prostate specific antigen (PSA) screening in men 75 years and older. However, some primary care physicians (PCPs) continue to have high rates of PSA, with large variation in testing. We assessed the tests, treatments, and payments for prostate cancer care in men aged 75 or older who have PCPs with high or low PSA testing rates.Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study using the 2010 Medicare beneficiaries aged 75 or older in Texas, United States who had no prostate cancer in 2007-2009 and had an identifiable PCP. We first identified high vs. low PSA testing PCPs, and then grouped older men in the two PCP groups. We determined health care visits to any provider and to urologists in office and outpatient settings. We estimated the direct medical payments for prostate cancer care for diagnostics, treatments and visits to providers in 2010-2011 using the generalized gamma model with log link function.Results: In multilevel, multivariable analyses, 25.4% (n = 550) of PCPs had PSA testing rates in men aged 75 or older that were significantly higher than the mean rate of all 2,169 Texas PCPs; 29.4% (n = 638) had rates that were significantly lower. In all, 22,853 vs. 23,929 older men were cared for by PCPs with high vs. low testing rates. Older men cared for by high PSA rate PCPs were more likely to receive a PSA test (OR 3.64, 95% CI 3.48-3.80), a biopsy (OR 1.16, 95% CI 1.02-1.31), an ultrasound (OR 1.19, 95% CI 1.07-1.32) or any radiation treatment (OR 1.31, 95% CI 1.03-1.66) than men cared for by low PSA rate PCPs. Men with high PSA rate PCPs were 1.21 (95% CI 1.05-1.39) times more likely to have such outpatient visits. The average annual adjusted Medicare payments for prostate cancer care was $25.60 higher for patients cared for by PCPs with high PSA test rates.Conclusions: Older men seeing PCPs with high rates of PSA testing undergo more testing and treatments for prostate cancer, with higher Medicare insurance payments. Future studies are needed to delineate whether men seeing PCPs with low testing rates likely received PSA tests from other providers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Medicaid programs face growing pressure to control spending. Despite evidence of clinical harms, states continue to impose policies limiting the number of reimbursable prescriptions (caps). We examined the recent use of prescription caps by Medicaid programs and the impact of policy implementation on prescription utilization.Methods: We identified Medicaid cap policies from 2001-2010. We classified caps as applying to all prescriptions (overall caps) or only branded prescriptions (brand caps). Using state-level, aggregate prescription data, we developed interrupted time-series analyses to evaluate the impact of implementing overall caps and brand caps in a subset of states with data available before and after cap initiation. For overall caps, we examined the use of essential medications, which were classified as preventive or as providing symptomatic benefit. For brand caps, we examined the use of all branded drugs as well as branded and generic medications among classes with available generic replacements.Results: The number of states with caps increased from 12 in 2001 to 20 in 2010. Overall cap implementation (n = 3) led to a 0.52% (p < 0.001) annual decrease in the proportion of essential prescriptions but no change in cost. For preventive essential medications, overall caps led to a 1.12% (p = 0.001) annual decrease in prescriptions (246,000 prescriptions annually) and a 1.20% (p < 0.001) decrease in spending (-$12.2 million annually), but no decrease in symptomatic essential medication use. Brand cap implementation (n = 6) led to an immediate 2.29% (p = 0.16) decrease in branded prescriptions and 1.26% (p = 0.025) decrease in spending. For medication classes with generic replacements, the decrease in branded prescriptions (0.74%, p = 0.003) approximately equaled the increase in generics (0.79%, p = 0.009), with estimated savings of $17.4 million.Conclusions: An increasing number of states are using prescription caps, with mixed results. Overall caps decreased the use of preventive but not symptomatic essential medications, suggesting that patients assign higher priority to agents providing symptomatic benefit when faced with reimbursement limits. Among medications with generic replacements, brand caps shifted usage from branded drugs to generics, with considerable savings. Future research should analyze the patient-level impact of these policies to measure clinical outcomes associated with these changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To investigate the average and extrapolated excess length of stay and direct costs of adverse events (AEs) and preventable AEs in Dutch hospitals, and to evaluate patient characteristics associated with excess length of stay and costs.Methods: Data of a large retrospective patient record review study on AEs was used. A stratified sample of 20 Dutch hospitals was included. Excess length of stay and costs attributable to AEs and preventable AEs were calculated and extrapolated to a national estimate. The association between patient characteristics and excess length of stay (and costs thereof) attributable to AEs and preventable AEs was investigated through multilevel linear regression analyses.Results: A total of 2975 patient records were included in the analysis, of which 325 experienced one or more AEs. Hospital patients experiencing an AE stayed 5.11 (95% CI 3.91-6.30) more days in hospital and cost €2600 (95% CI €1968-€3232) more compared to those without an AE. There was no significant difference in days and costs between preventable and non-preventable AEs. Extrapolated to a national level, AEs cost more than €300 million, which was 1.3% of the national hospital care budget. Patients with hospital-acquired infections had a statistically significant longer length of stay compared to the reference group (patients with AEs on the cardiovascular system).Conclusions: This study showed that AEs lead to substantial excess length of stay and increased costs. Special attention should be paid to patients with AEs due to an hospital-acquired infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The majority of one billion smokers worldwide live in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and the highest proportion of smokers in most of these countries belong to the lower socioeconomic groups. This study aimed to investigate the associations between tobacco use within households and expenditures on food, education, and healthcare in LMICs.Methods: Using data from the World Health Survey, this cross-sectional study included a sample of 53,625 adult males aged <60 years from 40 LMICs. Multilevel, mixed-effects linear regression was used to determine the association between current tobacco use status of the main income provider (daily; occasional; no use) and three categories of (logged) household expenditures: food, education, and healthcare; controlling for age, level of education, household wealth quintile, marital status, urban-rural setting, country-level income group, and region.Results: In the preferred random-slope models that controlled for covariates, daily tobacco use was associated with lower household expenditures on education and healthcare by 8.0% (95% confidence interval: -12.8 to -3.2%) and 5.5% (-10.7 to -0.3%), respectively. The association between tobacco use and food expenditure was inconsistent across models.Conclusions: Tobacco use in LMICs may have a negative influence on investment in human capital development. Addressing the tobacco use problem in LMICs could benefit not only the health and economic well-being of smokers and their immediate families but also long-run economic development at a societal level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Up to 50% of pregnancies are unintended in the United States, and the healthcare costs associated with pregnancy are the most expensive among hospitalized conditions. The current study aims to assess Medicaid spending on various methods of contraception and on pregnancy care including unintended pregnancies. Methods: We analyzed Medicaid health claims data from 2004 to 2010. Women 14-49 years of age initiating contraceptive methods and pregnant women were included as separate cohorts. Medicaid spending was summarized using mean all-cause and contraceptive healthcare payments per patient per month (PPPM) over a follow-up period of up to 12 months. Medicaid payments were also estimated in 2008 per female member of childbearing age per month (PFCPM) and per member per month (PMPM). Medicaid payments on unintended pregnancies were also evaluated PFCPM and PMPM in 2008. Results: For short-acting reversible contraception (SARC) users, all-cause payments and contraceptive payments PPPM were respectively $365 and $18.3 for oral contraceptive (OC) users, $308 and $19.9 for transdermal users, $215 and $21.6 for vaginal ring users, $410 and $8.8 for injectable users. For long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) users (follow-up of 9-10 months), corresponding payments were $194 and $36.8 for IUD users, and $237 and $29.9 for implant users. Pregnancy cohort all-cause mean healthcare payments PPPM were $610. Payments PFCPM and PMPM for contraceptives were $1.44 and $0.54, while corresponding costs of pregnancies were estimated at $39.91 and $14.81, respectively. Payments PFCPM and PMPM for contraceptives represented a small fraction at 66.56% ($1.44/$21.95) and 6.63663% ($0.54/$8.15), respectively of the estimated payments for unintended pregnancy. Conclusions: This study of a large sample of Medicaid beneficiaries demonstrated that, over a follow-up period of 12 months, Medicaid payments for pregnancy were considerably higher than payments for either SARC or LARC users. Healthcare payments for contraceptives represented a small proportion of payments for unintended pregnancy when considering the overall Medicaid population perspective in 2008. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Each year, several thousand cases of malaria occur in south-central Vietnam. Evidence from elsewhere suggests that malaria can have an economic impact on the household as the illness prevents households from completing their normal, physically demanding, productive duties such as tending crops and animals. The economic impact of malaria on households was explored within the Raglay ethnic minority living in the montainous and forested area of south-central Vietnam (Ninh Thuan Province). Methods: Two-hundred fifty-one malaria patients were identified and interviewed in an exit survey at Community Health Centres. The same patient sample was then re-interviewed in a household survey two to four weeks later. Survey data were complemented by approximately 40 informal discussions with health workers, vendors, patients, and community leaders. Results: Each episode of malaria was estimated to cost the patient's household an average of 11.79 USD (2005 prices), direct costs for travel and treatment representing 6% of the total while the remainder was loss in annual income. Conclusion: Whilst government provision of malaria treatment keeps the direct costs relatively low, the overall loss in income due to illness can still be significant given the poverty amongst this population, especially when multiple cases of malaria occur annually within the same household. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To estimate the proportion of pregnant women in Louisiana who do not obtain abortions because Medicaid does not cover abortion.Methods: Two hundred sixty nine women presenting at first prenatal visits in Southern Louisiana, 2015-2017, completed self-administered iPad surveys and structured interviews. Women reporting having considered abortion were asked whether Medicaid not paying for abortion was a reason they had not had an abortion. Using study data and published estimates of births, abortions, and Medicaid-covered births in Louisiana, we projected the proportion of Medicaid births that would instead be abortions if Medicaid covered abortion in Louisiana.Results: 28% considered abortion. Among women with Medicaid, 7.2% [95% CI 4.1-12.3] reported Medicaid not paying as a reason they did not have an abortion. Existing estimates suggest 10% of Louisiana pregnancies end in abortion. If Medicaid covered abortion, this would increase to 14% [95% CI 12, 16]. 29% [95% CI 19, 41] of Medicaid eligible pregnant women who would have an abortion with Medicaid coverage, instead give birth.Conclusions: For a substantial proportion of pregnant women in Louisiana, the lack of Medicaid funding remains an insurmountable barrier to obtaining an abortion. Forty years after the Hyde Amendment was passed, lack of Medicaid funding for abortion continues to have substantial impacts on women's ability to obtain abortions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the United States, home-based primary care (HBPC) is increasingly proposed as a means of enabling frail elders to remain at home for as long as possible, while still receiving needed medical care. However, there are relatively few studies of either the medical outcome effects or cost benefits of HBPC. In this paper, we examine medical cost and mortality outcomes for enrollees in the HBPC program offered by Spectrum Health/Priority Health (SH/PH), a not-for-profit integrated health care/health insurance system located in Grand Rapids, MI, USA.Methods: We perform a concurrent matched cohort study. SH/PH HBPC enrollees during 2012-2014 are matched for prior costs, age, sex and comorbidities against controls selected from unenrolled insurance plan members. Twelve and twenty four-month medical costs are compared between HBPC participants and matched controls, overall and conditional on mortality status. Mortality rates of HBPC participants are studied on their own and in comparison to controls.Results: At 12 and 24 months, in comparison to matched controls HBPC participants show higher ($2933) and lower ($8620) costs respectively. Relative costs and savings of HBPC participants are a function of short term increased costs upon entry into the program (enrollees who survive the first year cost $5866 more than controls); substantial savings at end-of-life (approximately $37,037 in savings relative to controls are realized); and the overall mortality of HBPC participants (mean residual lifespan is 37.75 months from the time of enrollment). We project the present value of lifetime medical cost savings due to enrollment in the HBPC program to be at least $14,336.Conclusions: The SH/PC HBPC program reduces healthcare costs while enabling frail elders to remain at home. Reduction in costs is obtained at end-of-life and is offset with a smaller initial increase in costs upon enrollment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To estimate changes in the cost and utilization of Medicare among beneficiaries over age 65 who have been impacted by a natural disaster, we merged publically available county-level Medicare claims for the years 2008-2012 with Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) data related to disasters in each U.S. County from 2007 to 2012.Methods: Fixed-effects generalized linear models were used to calculate change in per capita costs standardized by region and utilization per 1000 beneficiaries at the county level. Aggregate county demographic characteristics of Medicare participants were included as predictors of change in county-level utilization and cost. FEMA data was used to determine counties that experienced no, some, high, and extreme hazard exposure. FEMA data was merged with claims data to create a balanced panel dataset from 2008 to 2012.Results: In general, both cost and utilization of Medicare services were higher in counties with more hazard exposure. However, utilization of home health services was lower in counties with more hazard exposure.Conclusions: Additional research using individual-level data is needed to address limitations and determine the impacts of the substitution of services (e.g., inpatient rehabilitation for home health) that may be occurring in disaster affected areas during the post-disaster period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]