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Adult observers have surprisingly low calculation efficiencies for letter recognition (see, e.g., Pelli, Burns, Farell, & Moore-Page, 2006). Here, we examine the possibility that this is partly due to observers' neglecting paper features (e.g., the absence of ascenders and descenders in 'o'). Each of 16 observers completed 5,000 trials of a single-letter two-alternative forced-choice detection task. Using a combination of classification image analyses and Bayesian statistical analyses, we argue that between 60% and 75% of our participants indeed neglected paper features.

Purpose. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is increasingly important for the rapid detection of fungal keratitis. However, techniques of specimen collection and DNA extraction before PCR may interfere with test sensitivity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of DNA-stabilizing FTA filter paper (Indicating FTA filter paper; Whatman International, Ltd., Maidstone, UK) for specimen collection without DNA extraction in a single-step, nonnested PCR for fungal keratitis. Methods. Specimens were collected from ocular surfaces with FTA filter discs, which automatically lyse collected cells and stabilize nucleic acids. Filter discs were directly used in single-step PCR reactions to detect fungal DNA. Test sensitivity was evaluated with serial dilutions of Candida albicans, Fusarium oxysporum, and Aspergillus fumigatus cultures. Test specificity was analyzed by comparing 196 and 155 healthy individuals from Switzerland and Egypt, respectively, with 15 patients with a diagnosis of microbial keratitis. Results. PCR with filter discs detected 3 C. albicans, 25 F. oxysporum, and 125 A. fumigatus organisms. In healthy volunteers, fungal PCR was positive in 1.0% and 8.4% of eyes from Switzerland and Egypt, respectively. Fungal PCR remained negative in 10 cases of culture-proven bacterial keratitis, became positive in 4 cases of fungal keratitis, but missed 1 case of culture-proven A. fumigatus keratitis. Conclusions. FTA filter paper for specimen collection together with direct PCR is a promising method of detecting fungal keratitis. The analytical sensitivity is high without the need for a semi-nested or nested second PCR, the clinical specificity is 91.7% to 99.0%, and the method is rapid and inexpensive.

© 2015 The Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Inc. Although rare in the general population, retinal dystrophies occupy a central position in current efforts to develop innovative therapies for blinding diseases. This status derives, in part, from the unique biology, accessibility, and function of the retina, as well as from the synergy between molecular discoveries and transformative advances in functional assessment and retinal imaging. The combination of these factors has fueled remarkable progress in the field, while at the same time creating complex challenges for organizing collective efforts aimed at advancing translational research. The present position paper outlines recent progress in gene therapy and cell therapy for this group of disorders, and presents a set of recommendations for addressing the challenges remaining for the coming decade. It is hoped that the formulation of these recommendations will stimulate discussions among researchers, funding agencies, industry, and policy makers that will accelerate the development of safe and effective treatments for retinal dystrophies and related diseases.

The National Eye Institute (NEI) hosted a workshop on May 2, 2015, as part of the Audacious Goals Initiative (AGI) to foster a concerted effort to develop novel therapies for outer retinal diseases. The central goal of this initiative is to "demonstrate by 2025 the restoration of usable vision in humans through the regeneration of neurons and neural connections in the eye and visual system." More specifically, the AGI identified two neural retinal cell classes-ganglion cells and photoreceptors-as challenging, high impact targets for these efforts. A prior workshop and subsequent white paper provided a foundation to begin addressing issues regarding optic nerve regeneration, whereas the major objective of the May 2015 workshop was to review progress toward photoreceptor replacement and identify research gaps and barriers that are limiting advancement of the field. The present report summarizes that discussion and input, which was gathered from a panel of distinguished basic science and clinical investigators with diverse technical expertise and experience with different model systems. Four broad discussion categories were put forth during the workshop, each addressing a critical area of need in the pursuit of functional photoreceptor regeneration: (1) cell sources for photoreceptor regeneration, (2) cell delivery and/or integration, (3) outcome assessment, and (4) preclinical models and target patient populations. For each category, multiple challenges and opportunities for research discovery and tool production were identified and vetted. The present report summarizes the dialogue that took place and seeks to encourage continued interactions within the vision science community on this topic. It also serves as a guide for funding to support the pursuit of cell and circuit repair in diseases leading to photoreceptor degeneration.

PURPOSE Lens case hygiene is important for safe contact lens wear. However, there are no evidence-based data to suggest optimum hygiene regimens. This in vitro study aimed to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of manufacturers' guidelines and several other regimens in removing biofilm using various types of contact lens cases and disinfecting agents. METHODS Biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa 122 were formed on two types of unused contact lens cases. Subsequently, each contact lens case was subjected to one of four cleaning regimens using two different multipurpose disinfecting solutions or distilled water: "rinse and air-dry (guidelines)," "rub, rinse and air-dry," "tissue-wipe and air-dry," and "rub, rinse, tissue-wipe, and air-dry." The levels of residual biofilm were then quantified using viable counts and compared. RESULTS The manufacturers' guidelines resulted in 1 to 2 log CFU reduction of either biofilm. "Rub, rinse, tissue-wipe, and air-dry" was the most effective cleaning regimen (P < 0.001), capable of removing 4 to 6 log CFUs of bacteria; higher levels of biofilm were removed by mechanical friction from nonridged cases than that of ridged cases (P < 0.001). Biofilm removal varied with multipurpose solution tested. CONCLUSIONS Current manufacturers' guidelines are not adequate in eliminating microbial contamination. Simply incorporating a rubbing/wiping step in daily case hygiene reduces viable organism recovery. Factors such as the cleaning regimen, antimicrobial potency of multipurpose solution, and the interior topography of a lens case may impact the surface detachment of biofilm during the cleaning process.

Human memory consists of sensory memory (SM), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). SM enables a large capacity, but decays rapidly. STM has limited capacity, but lasts longer. The traditional view of these memory systems resembles a leaky hourglass, the large top and bottom portions representing the large capacities of SM and LTM, whereas the narrow portion in the middle represents the limited capacity of STM. The “leak” in the top part of the hourglass depicts the rapid decay of the contents of SM. However, recently, it was shown that major bottlenecks for motion processing exist prior to STM, and the “leaky hourglass” model was replaced by a “leaky flask” model with a narrower top part to capture bottlenecks prior to STM. The leaky flask model was based on data from one study, and the first goal of the current paper was to test if the leaky flask model would generalize by using a different set of data. The second goal of the paper was to explore various block diagram models for memory systems and determine the one best supported by the data. We expressed these block diagram models in terms of statistical mixture models and, by using the Bayesian information criterion (BIC), found that a model with four components, viz., SM, attention, STM, and guessing, provided the best fit to our data. In summary, we generalized previous findings about early qualitative and quantitative bottlenecks, as expressed in the leaky flask model and showed that a four-process model can provide a good explanation for how visual information is processed and stored in memory.

Item does not contain fulltext PURPOSE: The International Myopia Institute (IMI) Yearly Digest highlights new research considered to be of importance since the publication of the first series of IMI white papers. METHODS: A literature search was conducted for articles on myopia between 2019 and mid-2020 to inform definitions and classifications, experimental models, genetics, interventions, clinical trials, and clinical management. Conference abstracts from key meetings in the same period were also considered. RESULTS: One thousand articles on myopia have been published between 2019 and mid-2020. Key advances include the use of the definition of premyopia in studies currently under way to test interventions in myopia, new definitions in the field of pathologic myopia, the role of new pharmacologic treatments in experimental models such as intraocular pressure-lowering latanoprost, a large meta-analysis of refractive error identifying 336 new genetic loci, new clinical interventions such as the defocus incorporated multisegment spectacles and combination therapy with low-dose atropine and orthokeratology (OK), normative standards in refractive error, the ethical dilemma of a placebo control group when myopia control treatments are established, reporting the physical metric of myopia reduction versus a percentage reduction, comparison of the risk of pediatric OK wear with risk of vision impairment in myopia, the justification of preventing myopic and axial length increase versus quality of life, and future vision loss. CONCLUSIONS: Large amounts of research in myopia have been published since the IMI 2019 white papers were released. The yearly digest serves to highlight the latest research and advances in myopia.

The International Myopia Institute's (IMI) mission is to advance research, education, and management of myopia to decrease future vision impairment and blindness associated with increasing myopia. Its approach is to bring together scientists, clinicians, policymakers, government members, and educators into the field of myopia to stimulate collaboration and sharing of knowledge. The latest reports are on pathologic myopia, the impact of myopia, risk factors for myopia, accommodation and binocular vision in myopia development and progression, and the prevention of myopia and its progression. Together with the digest updating the 2019 International Myopia Institute white papers using the research published in the last 18 months, these evidence-based consensus white papers help to clarify the imperative for myopia control and the role of environmental modification initiatives, informing an evidence-based clinical approach. This guidance includes who to treat and when to start or stop treatment, and the advantages and limitations of different management approaches.

Purpose Clinical decisions on treatment are usually based on short-term records of consecutive measurements of structure and function. Useful models for analyzing average trends and a description of statistical methods for classifying individual subjects on the basis of subject-specific trend progressions are presented. Methods Random effects trend models allow intercepts and slopes of the trend regression to vary across subjects around group-specific mean intercepts and mean slopes. Model results assess whether average intercepts and slopes and subject variability in intercepts and slopes are the same across groups. Fisher's discriminant functions are used for classification. Results Methods are presented and illustrated on structural visual data from a multiyear perimetry study. Average thickness of the ganglion cell layer from the optical coherence tomography macula scan and of the retinal nerve fiber layer from the optic disc scan for both glaucoma patients on optimal treatment and normal subjects are analyzed. The random effects trend model shows that average intercepts of glaucoma patients and normal subjects are quite different, but that average slopes are the same, and that the subject variability in both intercepts and slopes is larger for the glaucoma group. These findings explain why the subject-specific trend progression is not a good classifier; it is the level of the measurement (intercept or baseline value) that carries useful information in this particular cohort example. Translational relevance Clinicians base decisions on short-term records of consecutive measurements and need simple statistical tools to analyze the information. This paper discusses useful methods for analyzing short time series data. Model results assess whether there exist significant trends and whether average trends are different across groups. The paper discusses whether clinical measures classify patients reliably into disease groups, given their variability. With ever more available data, classification plays a central role of personalized medicine.

Low Vision Comparing the Shape of Contrast Sensitivity Functions for Normal and Low Vision Susana T. L. Chung 1 and Gordon E. Legge 2 School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States Correspondence: Susana T. L. Chung, 360 Minor Hall, School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA; s.chung@berkeley.edu. Submitted: August 31, 2015 Accepted: December 9, 2015 Citation: Chung STL, Legge GE. Com- paring the shape of contrast sensitivity functions for normal and low vision. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;57:198–207. DOI:10.1167/ iovs.15-18084 P URPOSE . The contrast sensitivity function (CSF) provides a detailed description of an individual’s spatial-pattern detection capability. We tested the hypothesis that the CSFs of people with low vision differ from a ‘‘normal’’ CSF only in their horizontal and vertical positions along the spatial frequency (SF) and contrast sensitivity (CS) axes. M ETHODS . Contrast sensitivity for detecting horizontal sinewave gratings was measured with a two temporal-interval forced-choice staircase procedure, for a range of SFs spanning 5 to 6 octaves, for 20 low-vision observers and five adults with normal vision. An asymmetric parabolic function was used to fit the aggregate data of the normal-vision observers, yielding the ‘‘normal template.’’ Each of the 20 low-vision CSFs was fit in two ways, by using a shape- invariant version of the normal template (with the width parameters fixed) that was shifted along the log-SF and log-CS axes, and by an unconstrained asymmetric parabolic function (‘‘free-fit’’). R ESULTS . The two fitting methods yielded values of the peak CS, the SF corresponding to peak CS, and the high cut-off SF that were highly correlated and in good agreement with each other. In addition, the width parameters of the low-vision CSFs were comparable with those of the normal template, implying that low-vision CSFs are similar in shape to the normal CSF. C ONCLUSIONS . The excellent agreement of parameters estimated by the two fitting methods suggests that low-vision CSFs can be approximated by a normal CSF shifted along the log-SF and log-CS axes to account for the impaired acuity and contrast sensitivity. Keywords: contrast sensitivity function, low vision, psychophysics, spatial vision ur ability to detect the presence of an object depends on the size of the object (larger is generally easier to detect), and also on the presence of any differences, such as a luminance difference, between the object and its background. The sensitivity to the relative difference in luminance of an object from its background is referred to as contrast sensitivity. Contrast sensitivity depends on object size. A complete representation of how contrast sensitivity depends on object size is referred to as the contrast sensitivity function (CSF), where the object size is usually specified in spatial frequency (c/deg) of a sinewave pattern. As such, the CSF provides a rich description of an individual’s spatial-pattern detection capabil- ity. Knowing the CSF of a person with low vision is often informative about their ability to see shapes and recognize objects in their daily lives. The gold standard for determining a CSF is to measure contrast thresholds for detecting sinusoidal gratings across a range of spatial frequencies using robust psychophysical techniques. 1,2 However, this method is time consuming, technically demanding, and requires a carefully calibrated display, and thus is not amenable for the determination of CSF for clinical patients. Recently, a method that uses a Bayesian adaptive procedure to select the spatial frequency and contrast of each trial to maximize the expected information gain has been developed for measuring CSFs. 3,4 The efficiency of this quick CSF method relies on its assumptions about the shape of the CSF and requires 100 trials to achieve good O agreement with a CSF measured with the conventional method. 4 The determination of CSF could be made more efficient if we could reduce the number of measurements required to estimate the full CSF, and link those measurements to standard clinical measures. In fact, an important simplifica- tion would exist if low-vision CSFs are similar in shape to normal CSFs, differing only in their positions on the spatial frequency (SF) and contrast sensitivity (CS) axes. In this paper, we test this hypothesis. There are several ways in which low-vision CSFs could differ in shape from normal-vision CSFs. For example, if contrast sensitivity loss occurs primarily at high spatial frequencies, then the fall-off of contrast sensitivity with high spatial frequencies would be steeper than observed in a normal-vision CSF (Fig. 1A). In the case that contrast sensitivity is equally affected across all spatial frequencies, the resulting CSF would appear as a vertical shift of a normal-vision CSF (Fig. 1B). Alternatively, if the reduction is not uniform across frequencies, then the resulting CSF may look like the one shown in Figure 1C. In addition, notches, representing CS loss only at SFs between the peak SF and the high SF cutoff (Fig. 1D), have been reported for patients with neurologic diseases such as multiple sclerosis. 5 Notches can also be due to uncorrected refractive errors 6 or imprecision of measurements 7 ; but because they are not the etiologies of low vision, they will not be considered for the purpose of this paper. Despite the fact that some low-vision CSFs may differ in shape from normal-vision CSFs, a previous iovs.arvojournals.org j ISSN: 1552-5783 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. Downloaded From: http://iovs.arvojournals.org/pdfaccess.ashx?url=/data/Journals/IOVS/934840/ on 01/21/2016

Purpose. To demonstrate accurate measurement of corneal elastic moduli in vivo with non-contact and non-invasive optical coherence elastography. Methods. Elastic properties (in-plane Young's modulus E and both in-plane, u, and out-of-plane, G, shear moduli) of rabbit cornea were quantified in vivo using non-contact dynamic Acoustic micro-Tapping Optical Coherence Elastography (AuT-OCE). The IOP-dependence of measured mechanical properties was explored in extracted whole globes following in vivo measurement. A nearly-incompressible transverse isotropic (NITI) model was used to reconstruct moduli from AuT-OCE data. Independently, cornea elastic moduli were also measured ex vivo with traditional, destructive mechanical tests (tensile extensometry and shear rheometry). Results. Our study demonstrates strong anisotropy of corneal elasticity in rabbits. The in-plane Young's modulus, computer as E=3u, was in the range of 20-44 MPa, whereas the out-of-plane shear modulus was in the range of 34-261 kPa. Both pressure-dependent ex vivo OCE and destructive mechanical tests performed on the same samples within an hour of euthanasia strongly support the results of AuT-OCE measurements. Conclusions. Non-contact AuT-OCE can non-invasively quantify cornea anisotropic elastic properties in vivo. Translational Relevance. As OCT is broadly accepted in Ophthalmology, these results suggest the potential for rapid translation of AuT-OCE into clinical practice. In addition, AuT-OCE can likely improve diagnostic criteria of ectatic corneal diseases, leading to early diagnosis, reduced complications, customized surgical treatment, and personalized biomechanical models of the eye., Comment: 33 pages main paper, 22 pages supplemental content

Constructive, critical peer review is an essential part of the information creation process that has evolved in our society. Journals constitute an essential component of the information dissemination infrastructure because, unlike meetings, the information contained therein is or needs to be subject to the rigors of peer review. Unfortunately, the peer-review process does not always operate as well as it should. For example, Bohannon1 submitted an intentionally flawed manuscript, concerning cancer, to 304 journals as part of an experiment to test the peer-review process. This paper was accepted by 157 of those journals. Godlee et al.2 submitted a paper with eight deliberate errors (in study design, analysis, and interpretation) to reviewers of the British Medical Journal. Among the 221 respondents, the average number of mistakes detected was two, and some reviewers found no mistakes in the manuscript. We are not perfect, and detection of errors in the peer-review process is not surprising. It does highlight, however, the need both for vigilance (among editors and readers) and an ongoing process for improvement. Because of the importance of peer review to the quality of Translational Vision Science & Technology (TVST), we are indebted to the TVST reviewers for the immensely important contributions they have made to the quality of the journal and for the service they have provided to the entire vision research community. On behalf of our Associate Editors, Editors, and readers, I thank each of you sincerely. Among the highly accomplished individuals who have generously donated their time and expertise for our benefit, a subset have made outstanding contributions due to the exceptional care with which they have reviewed manuscripts. The Editors of TVST have been asked to recognize these individuals by identifying them as “exceptional reviewers.” I am pleased to offer special recognition to these individuals as part of our thanks to each of the reviewers for TVST. TVST is our journal, and it will be as useful a source of information as we make it through the submission of our work and, no less, through the peer review to which that work is subjected.

The purpose of this paper was to develop a deep learning algorithm to detect retinal vascular leakage (leakage) in fluorescein angiography (FA) of patients with uveitis and use the trained algorithm to determine clinically notable leakage changes.An algorithm was trained and tested to detect leakage on a set of 200 FA images (61 patients) and evaluated on a separate 50-image test set (21 patients). The ground truth was leakage segmentation by two clinicians. The Dice Similarity Coefficient (DSC) was used to measure concordance.During training, the algorithm achieved a best average DSC of 0.572 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.548-0.596). The trained algorithm achieved a DSC of 0.563 (95% CI = 0.543-0.582) when tested on an additional set of 50 images. The trained algorithm was then used to detect leakage on pairs of FA images from longitudinal patient visits. Longitudinal leakage follow-up showed a2.21% change in the visible retina area covered by leakage (as detected by the algorithm) had a sensitivity and specificity of 90% (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.95) of detecting a clinically notable change compared to the gold standard, an expert clinician's assessment.This deep learning algorithm showed modest concordance in identifying vascular leakage compared to ground truth but was able to aid in identifying vascular FA leakage changes over time.This is a proof-of-concept study that vascular leakage can be detected in a more standardized way and that tools can be developed to help clinicians more objectively compare vascular leakage between FAs.

To evaluate the efficacy of losartan and prednisolone acetate in inhibiting corneal scarring fibrosis after alkali burn injury in rabbits.Sixteen New Zealand White rabbits were included. Alkali injuries were produced using 1N sodium hydroxide on a 5-mm diameter Whatman #1 filter paper for 1 minute. Four corneas in each group were treated six times per day for 1 month with 50 µL of (1) 0.8 mg/mL losartan in balanced salt solution (BSS), (2) 1% prednisolone acetate, (3) combined 0.8 mg/mL losartan and 1% prednisolone acetate, or (4) BSS. Area of opacity and total opacity were analyzed in standardized slit-lamp photos with ImageJ. Corneas in both groups were cryofixed in Optimal cutting temperature (OCT) compound at 1 month after surgery, and immunohistochemistry was performed for alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and keratocan or transforming growth factor β1 and collagen type IV with ImageJ quantitation.Combined topical losartan and prednisolone acetate significantly decreased slit-lamp opacity area and intensity, as well as decreased stromal myofibroblast α-SMA area and intensity of staining per section and confined myofibroblasts to only the posterior stroma with repopulation of the anterior and mid-stroma with keratocan-positive keratocytes after 1 month of treatment. Corneal fibroblasts produced collagen type IV not associated with basement membranes, and this production was decreased by topical losartan.Combined topical losartan and prednisolone acetate decreased myofibroblast-associated fibrosis after corneal alkali burns that produced full-thickness injury, including corneal endothelial damage. Increased dosages and duration of treatment may further decrease scarring fibrosis.Topical losartan and prednisolone acetate decrease myofibroblast-mediated scarring fibrosis after corneal injury.

Several papers have been published in previous years regarding cross-linking and the effect of the procedure on corneal ectasia. Different protocols of cross-linking have been described with or without corneal epithelium removal, with different kinds of riboflavin solution (e.g., hypo-, iso—hyper-osmolar), different impregnation times, and different lengths of UV-A illumination and irradiation power. The huge amount of information could disorient the general ophthalmologist, who has to choose the proper procedure and, moreover, decide the best protocol to treat the patient. The study by Wernli et al. 1 shows in a large number of cases, the biomechanical strengthening effect of cross-linking with various irradiances ranging from 3 to 90 mw/cm2 with illumination times from 30 minutes to 1 minute, respectively. These results show that for irradiances larger than 45 mW/cm2, corresponding to an illumination time of about 2 minutes, there is no significant increase in corneal strengthening. Considering the different tools commercially available and the various ranges of UV-A irradiances, the ophthalmologists, who are not accustomed with cross-linking procedure, could find the approach to cross-linking difficult and confusing; they could erroneously think that a faster procedure would be effective enough and without any side effect, like the original Seiler’s protocol. This paper is crucial because it gives precise information regarding the effective strengthening of the cornea at various irradiances. As the authors suggested, other papers will be needed to validate these results in vivo, study the possible side effects of higher doses of UV light at lower exposure times and consider the flattening effect of the different protocols. The flattening effect of crosslinking over the corneal stroma tended to regularize the corneal shape and allow variation in refraction with increase in best spectacle-corrected visual acuity in several patients. It was not necessarily related to the increase of the biomechanical strengthening of the cornea.

Each hue is believed to be made up of the four component hues (yellow, blue, red, and green). A hue consisting of just one component hue is called unitary (or unique). A new technique--partial hue-matching--has been used to reveal the component and unitary hues for a sample of 32 Munsell papers, which were illuminated by neutral, yellow, blue, green, and red lights and assessed by four normal trichromatic observers. The same set of four component hues has been found under both the neutral and the chromatic illuminations for all of the observers. On average, more than 87% of the papers containing a particular component hue under the neutral illumination also have this component hue when lit by the chromatic lights. However, only a quarter of the papers perceived as unitary under the neutral illumination continues being perceived as unitary under all of the chromatic illuminations. In other words, most unitary colors shift along the hue circle due to change in an illuminant's chromaticity. Still, this shift of unitary colors is relatively small: On average, it does not exceed one Munsell hue step.

It is widely believed that color can be decomposed into a small number of component colors. Particularly, each hue can be described as a combination of a restricted set of component hues. Methods, such as color naming and hue scaling, aim at describing color in terms of the relative amount of the component hues. However, there is no consensus on the nomenclature of component hues. Moreover, the very notion of hue (not to mention component hue) is usually defined verbally rather than perceptually. In this paper, we make an attempt to operationalize such a fundamental attribute of color as hue without the use of verbal terms. Specifically, we put forth a new method--partial hue-matching--that is based on judgments of whether two colors have some hue in common. It allows a set of component hues to be established objectively, without resorting to verbal definitions. Specifically, the largest sets of color stimuli, all of which partially match each other (referred to as chromaticity classes), can be derived from the observer's partial hue-matches. A chromaticity class proves to consist of all color stimuli that contain a particular component hue. Thus, the chromaticity classes fully define the set of component hues. Using samples of Munsell papers, a few experiments on partial hue-matching were carried out with twelve inexperienced normal trichromatic observers. The results reinforce the classical notion of four component hues (yellow, blue, red, and green). Black and white (but not gray) were also found to be component colors.

The purpose of this study was to accurately forecast future reliable visual field (VF) mean deviation (MD) values by correcting for poor reliability.Four linear regression techniques (standard, unfiltered, corrected, and weighted) were fit to VF data from 5939 eyes with a final reliable VF. For each eye, all VFs, except the final one, were used to fit the models. Then, the difference between the final VF MD value and each model's estimate for the final VF MD value was used to calculate model error. We aggregated the error for each model across all eyes to compare model performance. The results were further broken down into eye-level reliability subgroups to track performance as reliability levels fluctuate.The standard method, used in the Humphrey Field Analyzer (HFA), was the worst performing model with an average residual that was 0.69 dB higher than the average from the unfiltered method, and 0.79 dB higher than that of the weighted and corrected methods. The weighted method was the best performing model, beating the standard model by as much as 1.75 dB in the 40% to 50% eye-level reliability subgroup. However, its average 95% prediction interval was relatively large at 7.67 dB.Including all VFs in the trend estimation has more predictive power for future reliable VFs than excluding unreliable VFs. Correcting for VF reliability further improves model accuracy.The VF correction methods described in this paper may allow clinicians to catch VF worsening at an earlier stage.