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There is a common disturbing thread that runs throughout the criminal justice system of these countries where 'race' is regarded as a relevant difference between individuals. The incarceration rates per 100,000 adult population of the Natives in Canada mirror very closely the incarceration rates per 100,000 adult population of Australian Aborigines. On the other hand, the incarceration rates per 100,000 adult African Americans are markedly similar to the incarceration rates per 100,000 adult Blacks in England and Wales. There is considerable disagreement among social scientists as to the causes of the disparities in the rates of imprisonment of racial minorities in these countries that often result in their over-representation in the criminal justice system. While some view the racial disproportion as a result of differential involvement in crime by racial minorities, others are of the strong opinion that the causes are embedded in the operations of economic, social and criminal justice systems of these countries. The percentages of minorities under correctional control and supervision in these countries in no way reflect their makeup in the civilian population. Currently in Canada, the Natives constitute about 3% of the general population but 17% of prisoners in the federal system. In Australia, the Natives currently make up 2% of the population but 20% of all prisoners. African Americans currently make up 13% of the US population and a staggering 46% of the sentenced prisoners. In England and Wales (1999/2000), Blacks comprised only 2% of the general population but 10.2% of the prison population [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past thirty years improvements in inmate-staff relations have been pursued by corrections organizations through introduction of unit management and direct supervision approaches, along with more open prison designs to support these strategies. This comparative study of Canadian and New Zealand uses a qualitative approach to appraise the impact of direct supervision initiatives and the meanings assigned to them by inmates and correctional staff. In-depth interviews provide the retrospective views of 37 inmates and 21 corrections staff at three medium security sites: a Canadian provincial correctional centre, a Canadian federal institution, and multi purpose New Zealand prison. Data indicate significant changes in inmate-correctional officer communication, less informal use of physical violence by officers and erosion of the inmate code of conduct. These gains are tempered by continued difficulties with drugs in some facilities, questions over the quality of interpersonal communication, and the negative influence of prison gang culture. While there is some variation between the two nations, there are more similarities than differences in the evolution of inmate and staff cultures. Results illustrate the potential of direct supervision approaches and suggest several promising methods to improve staff-inmate relations. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]