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The jets produced on a microsecond x-pinch (quarter period T1/4 ∼ 1 μs, dI/dt ∼ 0.35 kA/ns) have been studied through light-field schlieren imaging and optical framing photographs across 4 different materials: Al, Ti, Mo, and W. The axial velocity of the jets was measured and exhibited no dependence on atomic number (Z) of the wire material. There may be a dependence on another factor(s), namely, the current rise rate. The average axial jet velocity across all four materials was measured to be 2.9 ± 0.5 × 106 cm/s. The average jet diameter and the average radial jet expansion rate displayed inverse relationships with Z, which may be attributed to radiative cooling and inertia. Asymmetry between the anode and cathode jet behavior was observed and is thought to be caused by electron beam activity. The mean divergence angle of the jet was found to vary with wire material and correlated inversely with the thermal conductivity of the cold wire. Optical images indicated a two-layer structure in Al jets which may be caused by standing shocks and resemble phenomena observed in astrophysical jet formation and collimation. Kinks in the jets have also been observed which may be caused by m = 1 MHD instability modes or by the interaction of the jet with the electrode plasma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To optimize a laser ignition scheme, absorption rate measurements and Schlieren visualizations are performed on dual-pulse laser-induced breakdowns (LIBs) at incident energies from 50 mJ to 200 mJ and pulse intervals that range from 20 ns to 250 µs in quiescent air at atmospheric pressure. For comparison, experiments on single-pulse LIBs are also conducted. The shock loss is determined using a semi-empirical model (Jones' model), and quantitative information on the spatial distribution of the hot plume is extracted from Schlieren images using in-house code. The results reveal that multi-location laser ignition can be achieved without reducing the energy absorption or strengthening the shock loss only when the energy of each laser pulse exceeds 200 mJ. This requirement is because the absorption rate of single-pulse LIB decreases significantly when the laser energy is lower than 200 mJ, and the shock loss of single-pulse LIB invariably accounts for approximately 80% of the absorbed laser energy at various incident energies. Compared with single-pulse LIB, dual-pulse LIB with a pulse interval of less than 200 ns is slightly inferior in terms of energy absorption and shock loss; however, the advantages of a larger initial plasma volume and lower energy dissipation can compensate for this deficiency. Therefore, dual-pulse laser ignition is a promising alternative to single-pulse laser ignition. Moreover, ignition reliability can be enhanced by initially releasing the laser pulse with higher energy when the energies of the successive pulses are not the same because of higher energy absorption and lower shock loss. In addition, the spatial distribution of the resulting hot plume is relatively centralized, which helps to reduce energy and radical dissipation. However, a pulse interval longer than 200 ns should be avoided for dual-pulse LIB because the laser energy cannot be utilized efficiently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work investigates the hydrodynamic characteristics of a coaxial double-ring electrode helium plasma jet by means of a "Z-type" Schlieren imaging system. The Schlieren images and visual optical photographs made show that a transition point from a laminar region to a turbulent region exists for gas flow without plasma when the helium flow rate exceeds a certain value. After plasma ignition, the laminar region shrinks with voltage increases, and the maximum length of the plasma plume is confined to the laminar region. The heat transfer equation and the spectral broadening of the He I 667.8 nm were used to estimate the increased gas temperature in the plasma jet, and the change in gas velocity by ionic momentum transfer was found by application of a double sphere collision model. As a result, gas heating is considered to be the dominant factor for the earlier onset of turbulence after plasma ignition, whereas the role of ion momentum transfer to neutral gas molecules is comparatively weak. The hydrodynamic behaviors of the plasma jet at the impact region for organic glass and silicon substrates are also researched. The ionization front propagates along the organic glass surface and contracts at the impact point on the silicon surface. More visible vortices are observed from Schlieren images with silicon substrates than with organic glass substrates. Possible mechanisms related to the different treatment effects are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An experimental study aimed at the characterization of energy deposition of nanosecond Dielectric Barrier Discharge (ns-DBD) plasma actuators was carried out. Special attention was given on the effect of the thickness and material used for dielectric barrier. The selected materials for this study were polyimide film (Kapton), polyamide based nylon (PA2200), and silicone rubber. Schlieren measurements were carried out in quiescent air conditions in order to observe density gradients induced by energy deposited. Size of heated area was used to qualify the energy deposition coupled with electrical power measurements performed using the back-current shunt technique. Additionally, light intensity measurements showed a different nature of discharge based upon the material used for barrier, for a fixed thickness and frequency of discharge. Finally, a characterisation study was performed for the three tested materials. Dielectric constant, volume resistivity, and thermal conductivity were measured. Strong trends between the control parameters and the energy deposited into the fluid during the discharge were observed. Results indicate that efficiency of energy deposition mechanism relative to the thickness of the barrier strongly depends upon the material used for the dielectric barrier itself. In general, a high dielectric strength and a low volumetric resistivity are preferred for a barrier, together with a high heat capacitance and a low thermal conductivity coefficient in order to maximize the efficiency of the thermal energy deposition induced by an ns-DBD plasma actuator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A two-wavelength quantitative Schlieren technique that allows inferring the electron and gas densities of axisymmetric arc plasmas without imposing any assumption regarding statistical equilibrium models is reported. This technique was applied to the study of local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) departures within the core of a 30 A high-energy density cutting arc. In order to derive the electron and heavy particle temperatures from the inferred density profiles, a generalized two-temperature Saha equation together with the plasma equation of state and the quasineutrality condition were employed. Factors such as arc fluctuations that influence the accuracy of the measurements and the validity of the assumptions used to derive the plasma species temperature were considered. Significant deviations from chemical equilibrium as well as kinetic equilibrium were found at elevated electron temperatures and gas densities toward the arc core edge. An electron temperature profile nearly constant through the arc core with a value of about 14000-15000 K, well decoupled from the heavy particle temperature of about 1500 K at the arc core edge, was inferred. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plasma temperature and radial density profiles of the plasma species in a high energy density cutting arc have been obtained by using a quantitative schlieren technique. A Z-type two-mirror schlieren system was used in this research. Due to its great sensibility such technique allows measuring plasma composition and temperature from the arc axis to the surrounding medium by processing the gray-level contrast values of digital schlieren images recorded at the observation plane for a given position of a transverse knife located at the exit focal plane of the system. The technique has provided a good visualization of the plasma flow emerging from the nozzle and its interactions with the surrounding medium and the anode. The obtained temperature values are in good agreement with those values previously obtained by the authors on the same torch using Langmuir probes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nondisturbing laser-probing polarimetry (based on the Faraday and Kerr effects) and Schlieren diagnostics were used in the investigation of underwater electrical wire explosion. Measuring the polarization plane rotation angle of a probing laser beam due to the Faraday effect allows one to determine an axially resolved current flowing through the exploding wire, unlike commonly used current probes. This optical method of measuring current yields results that match those obtained using a current viewing resistor within an accuracy of 10%. The same optical setup allows simultaneous space-resolved measurement of the electric field using the Kerr effect. It was shown that the maximal amplitude of the electric field in the vicinity of the high-voltage electrode is ∼80 kV/cm and that the radial electric field is <1 MV/cm during the wire explosion. Finally, it was shown that the use of Schlieren diagnostics allows one to obtain qualitatively the density distribution behind the shock wave front, which is important for the determination of the energy transfer from the discharge channel to the generated water flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent experiments [N. F. Declercq and E. Lamkanfi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 2 (2008)] showed evidence of the relationship between the generation of leaky Rayleigh waves and the formation of the two reflected lobes and a null strip for bounded beam incidence at the Rayleigh angle. The evidence was based on an experimental setup using a sound barrier on a liquid solid interface. The current paper presents a finite element investigation of the experiments and confirms the earlier conclusions. In addition, unexplained experimental observations are clarified. Furthermore, a detailed investigation of the influence of the bonding properties between the barrier and the solid on the observed radiation patterns is achieved, which is of broader importance to the nondestructive characterization of bonding in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a general model for the spherically averaged exchange hole corresponding to a generalized gradient approximation (GGA) exchange functional. Parameters are reported for several common GGAs. Our model is based upon that of Ernzerhof and Perdew [J. Chem. Phys. 109, 3313 (1998)]. It improves upon the former by precisely reproducing the energy of the parent GGA, and by enabling fully analytic evaluation of range-separated hybrid density functionals. Analytic results and preliminary thermochemical tests indicate that our model also improves upon the simple, local-density-based exchange hole model of Iikura et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 115, 3540 (2001)]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tunable acoustic gradient index (TAG) lenses create tunable multiscale Bessel beams. These lenses are fluid-filled cylindrical cavities within which an acoustic radial standing wave is excited. This standing wave modulates the density, and thereby the refractive index within the lens. Spatial gradients in the refractive index can be used for lensing. A predictive model for the steady-state fluid mechanics behind TAG lenses driven with a sinusoidal voltage signal is presented here. The model covers inviscid and viscous regimes in both the resonant and off-resonant cases. The density fluctuations from the fluidic model are related to refractive index fluctuations. The entire model is then analyzed to determine the optimal values of lens design parameters for greatest lens refractive power. These design parameters include lens length, radius, static refractive index, fluid viscosity, sound speed, and driving frequency and amplitude. It is found that long lenses filled with a fluid of high refractive index and driven with large amplitude signals form the most effective lenses. When dealing with resonant driving conditions, low driving frequencies, smaller lens radii, and fluids with larger sound speeds are optimal. At nonresonant driving conditions, the opposite is true: High driving frequencies, larger radius lenses, and fluids with low sound speeds are beneficial. The ease of tunability of the TAG lens through modifying the driving signal is discussed, as are limitations of the model including cavitation and nonlinearities within the lens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thin films with sinusoidally varying refractive index profiles display photonic band gap effects. Intentional deviations from the periodic index profile can be used to tailor the optical properties of the resulting thin film. We present experimental characterization of TiO2 films with periodic index profiles fabricated using a deposition technique known as glancing angle deposition (GLAD). The resulting porous thin films have a microstructure consisting of vertically aligned columns. Sinusoidal porosity gradients, and therefore sinusoidal index profiles, can be introduced in the direction of the substrate normal by fabricating columns with a periodically varying diameter. Local modifications of the index profile are achieved by inserting thin layers of constant porosity into the center of the film, or by discontinuously changing the phase of the sinusoidal gradient. The introduction of these structural defects creates a narrow optical passband inside the larger band gap, and we demonstrate how the properties of this passband can be controlled through modification of the defect parameters. The magnitude of the phase shift constituting the defect is shown to control the location of the resulting passband. By inserting a layer with in-plane birefringence, we show that it is possible to create two separate passbands, one for each polarization, within a single stop band. The results illustrate how nanoscale porosity engineering using GLAD is a precise technique for fabricating one-dimensionally periodic films with a variety of optical characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experiments using the schlieren technique to image sound incident on a corrugated, water-brass interface show a backward displacement of the reflected beam at an angle of 22.5°, confirming the observations of Breazeale and Torbett [Appl. Phys. Lett. 29, 456 (1976)]. However, the present theory hypothesizes that this beam displacement results from excitation of a type of leaky surface wave. Further experiments with a sufficiently narrow incident beam reveal a backward displacement also at angles around 44°, resulting from excitation of Rayleigh surface waves, as predicted by the theory of Tamir and Bertoni [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61, 1397 (1971)]. Thus, a wide beam gives a backward displacement at 22.5° only. A narrow beam gives a backward displacement also at angles around 44°. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study by means of the Schlieren technique for the visualization of the ultrasonic beams has revealed that when the leaky Rayleigh waves propagating along the horizontal edge of a thick fluid-loaded solid plate are scattered at the extremity of the plate, they travel around the corner and start leaking into the liquid along the Rayleigh angle measured from the normal to the vertical edge of the plate. Furthermore, the study reveals that the leaky Rayleigh waves are stimulated by the border of an incident ultrasonic-bounded beam more than by the interior of the beam. A comparison with an earlier work shows that the characteristics of the scattering of the leaky Rayleigh waves at the edge of the plate is very different from that of the Scholte–Stoneley waves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gradient index lenses were formed in a liquid-filled cavity supporting an ultrasonic standing wave. The constructed devices acted as diverging lenses or axicon lenses, depending on whether the center or edge region is interrogated. Experiments and models suggest that the primary process contributing to lensing is the steady-state density component of the finite-amplitude standing wave. sound amplitudes up to 150 MPa were calculated in glycerin, corresponding to a maximum contrast in the refractive on the order of 0.1%. This amplitude was also sufficient to move high index nanometer-scale particles via an acoustic radiation force and thereby create larger refractive index gradients. Concepts are also explored to manipulate the particle distribution in order to create converging lenses and/or other desirable optical components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vibrational relaxation has been seen in shock waves in propane, isobutene, isobutane, neopentane, and toluene dilute in krypton with the laser–schlieren technique. These experiments cover about 600–2200 K and post-shock pressures from 5 to 29 Torr. The process cannot be resolved in any for T<600 K, or in any for large molecule fraction. All the ultrasonic measurements of relaxation in these at room temperature show characteristic times in the 1–5 ns atm range, corresponding to fewer than five collisions, whereas the relaxation times in the shock waves range from 20 to 200 ns atm, with a clearly defined negative or “inverted” temperature dependence. It would seem the observed slowdown of relaxation with increasing T is simply a consequence of the much increased energy transfer required at high temperature in such large polyatomics when this is combined with a collision efficiency, here interpreted as 〈ΔE〉[sub down], already so large it cannot much increase. The simple method for the extraction of a 〈ΔE〉[sub down] from relaxation data offered here by consideration of the energy relaxation equation for E[sub vib]=0 appears to be original and should prove quite useful in connecting thermal relaxation data to values obtained from spectroscopy and master-equation analyses. Here it is found that the derived 〈ΔE〉[sub down] extrapolate well to room temperature ultrasonic measurements, showing a slight increase with temperature. © 2004 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synthetic schlieren tomography is a recently proposed three-dimensional (3D) optical imaging technique for studying ultrasound fields. The imaging setup is composed of an imaged target, a water tank, a camera, and a pulsed light source, which is stroboscopically synchronized with an ultrasound transducer to achieve tomographically stationary imaging of an ultrasound field. In this technique, ultrasound waves change the propagation of light rays by inducing a change in refractive index via the acousto-optic effect. The change manifests as optical flow in the imaged target. By performing the imaging in a tomographic fashion, the two-dimensional tomographic dataset of the optical flow can be transformed into a 3D ultrasound field. In this work, two approaches for acoustic pressure field estimation are introduced. The approaches are based on optical and potential flow regularized least square optimizations where regularization based on the Helmholtz equation is introduced. The methods are validated via simulations in a telecentric setup and are compared quantitatively and qualitatively to a previously introduced method. Cases of a focused, an obliquely propagating, and a standing wave ultrasound field are considered. The simulations demonstrate the efficiency of the introduced methods also in situations in which the previously applied method has weaknesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acoustic-triggered conditional sampling analysis can extract the broadband-noise-related intermittent fluctuations from complicated schlieren visualization movies around the source region, which is difficult when using conventional methods. In this study, an analysis of the Mach wave radiation from a supersonic jet was performed. The extracted results properly captured the known features of the Mach waves and their sources (i.e., wavepacket at the jet boundary) and clearly showed the correlation between these near-field fluctuations and the far-field intermittent acoustic events. This analysis can potentially be applied to other broadband, intermittent turbulent noise and will provide a better understanding of their generation mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The compressible accelerated mixing layer of a central injector was thoroughly investigated experimentally to provide a data set that can be used for validating numerical simulations. A drop-shaped central injector was mounted upstream of a rectangular convergent-divergent nozzle, through which air was accelerated to a Mach number of 1.7. The free-stream Reynolds number at the point of injection was 6.245 × 104. Four different measurement techniques—short-time illuminated schlieren imaging, laser schlieren, laser-induced thermal acoustics, and laser-induced fluorescence (LIF)—were applied to visualize the flow structures and to measure the predominant frequency of periodic flow features, the Mach number and temperature, and the injectant distribution. Instantaneous images show that the mixing layer was dominated by a series of alternating vortices. The mixing layer's self-similarity could be proven by means of injectant mass fraction profiles, which were derived from LIF measurements. The growth rate of the mixing layer was shown to approximately follow the 1 2-power law. It was concluded from comparison to literature data that the growth rate is primarily determined by the free-stream Reynolds number, whereas the free-stream Mach number (compressibility effects) and the injectant amount play a minor role. These experimental data were used to validate three-dimensional (3D) unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes simulations using the shear-stress transport turbulence model. It was shown that the vortex shedding frequency and the mixing layer growth rate as well as the wake velocity deficit were underestimated by the simulations. This indicates that the flow physics of vortex formation were not entirely reproduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When light is incident upon a diffraction grating, images of the grating appear at periodic intervals behind the grating. This phenomenon and the associated self-imaging distance were named after Talbot, who first observed them in the nineteenth century. A century later, this effect held new surprises with the discovery of sub-images at regular fractional distances of the Talbot length. In this paper, we show that water waves enable one to observe the Talbot effect in a classroom experiment. Quantitative measurements, of for example the Talbot distances, can be performed with an easy-to-use digital Schlieren method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The oscillation characteristics of the shock train in an isolator have been investigated in a direct-connect wind tunnel at Mach 2.7. High-speed schlieren imaging and high-resonance frequency pressure measurements were used to capture the flow features during the shock train movement. The oscillation features without the effects of incident shocks were analyzed first. As the shock train moved upstream, the low-frequency part of the oscillation was found to develop. The analysis was then extended to complex situations with incident shocks. It was revealed that the shock wave-boundary layer interactions considerably influence the shock train behavior. The interactions were classified into three patterns: (I) single interaction, (II) multi-interactions on the same side, and (III) multi-interactions on different sides. Experimental results indicated that the oscillation could be affected in temporal scale by pattern II and enhanced in spatial scale by pattern III. The data also showed that the pressure rise induced upstream propagates to the exit, causing phase offsets in the wall pressure histories and making the pressure distributions diverge from their stable state. This phenomenon suggested a possible physical mechanism for the oscillation during shock train movement, which was verified by additional tests with large backpressure rising rate. It was found that there exists a critical frequency which is related to the pressure ramping rate during the oscillation. If the dominant frequency of the backpressure varies beyond this critical frequency, the pressure distribution could be forced into a steady state before the oscillation was induced. Otherwise the oscillation could not be suppressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

10.1119/1.5042245 Using schlieren optics as a tool to see the invisible, we describe a technique of visualizing traveling ultrasonic (28 kHz) sound waves in real time. Suitable for lecture demonstration purposes or as an instructional laboratory experiment, our setup can readily demonstrate the reflection of sound waves from surfaces, diffraction effects around objects, interference, and standing waves. Additionally, the incorporation of color filters provides information such as gradient directions and sound wave phase differences not obtainable with just a white light source. As an example, acoustic standing waves are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Schlieren method has been used before to visualize weak shock waves radiated from the open ends of brass instruments, but no attempt has previously been undertaken, however, to measure the geometry of the radiated wavefronts using the Schlieren images. In this paper Schlieren visualization is used to estimate the geometry of the two-dimensional shock wavefronts radiated from the bell of a trumpet at different frequencies. It is observed that the geometry of the shocks does change with frequency, in the expected manner. The propagation speeds of these shocks are also calculated, and they too exhibit the anticipated behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Richtmyer-Meshkov instability of an unperturbed air/SF6 interface subjected to a diffracted shock is experimentally studied by high-speed schlieren photography under cylindrical circumstances. The cylindrically converging diffracted shock (CCDS) is produced by a cylindrically uniform shock diffracting around a rigid cylinder(s), and the unperturbed interface is created by a soap film technique. The effects of coupling of multiple rigid cylinders and diverse spacings from the cylinder to interface on a flow field are highlighted. Schlieren images indicate that the amplitude of disturbances on the CCDS increases compared with the local shock radius. After the CCDS impact, a bulge is derived from the interface due to the shock-shock interaction inside the interface, and the number of bulges depends upon the number of cylinders. As the number of cylinders increases, the bulge becomes less pronounced, which is ascribed to additional shock-shock interactions inside the volume. As the distance between the cylinder and interface increases, an air cavity is first observed before the formation of a bulge. The amplitude of perturbation on the interface is found to reduce before the central reflected shock arrival because of the Rayleigh-Taylor stabilization effect. Through equating the preinterface disturbance of the CCDS to the pre-shock perturbation of the perturbed interface, the initially linear growth rate is theoretically computed based on the impulsive model considering the Bell-Plesset effect. The theoretical results are found to deviate greatly from the experimental counterparts. Instead, taking the post-shock interface amplitude as an initial interface amplitude, the model works well. Therefore, the interface perturbations produced are notably smaller than the disturbances causing them. Moreover, the nonlinear behavior of perturbation growth is estimated by the model considering the Rayleigh-Taylor effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a numerical method of reconstructing three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound fields from their two-dimensional back-projections to understand the intensity distribution of nonplanar waves. The horizontal planes for line-focused ultrasound fields were roughly elliptical, whereas those for point-focused ultrasound fields were nearly circular. Experimental and simulated results indicated that the ultrasound intensity at the central axis can be calibrated from the light intensity by 3D reconstruction of the ultrasound field. The difference between the measured ultrasound intensity for nonplanar waves in schlieren imaging and the simulation results were discussed. From this work, the 3D ultrasound field becomes possible to be reconstructed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study on the use of the Schlieren mode of Lorentz transmission electron microscopy in unraveling magnetization distributions in multiple magnetic films. Principle of the Foucault mode; Information on a study of iron-copper multilayers; Magnification of the Lorentz deflection pattern.

The local interactions occurring between incident and reflected shock waves in the vicinity of rigid surfaces are investigated. Both regular and irregular -- also called von Neumann -- regimes of reflection are studied, via experimental and numerical simulations. Shock waves are produced experimentally with a 20 kV electrical spark source which allows the generation of spherically diverging acoustic shocks. The behaviour of the resulting weak acoustic shocks near rigid boundaries is visualized with a Schlieren optical technique which allows the spatial structure of the shocks to be studied. In particular, the evolution of the Mach stem forming above a flat surface is examined, and its height is observed to be directly linked to the angle of incidence and the pressure amplitude of the incident shock. The propagation of an acoustic shock between two parallel rigid boundaries is also studied. It is shown that the strong interactions between the Mach stems emerging from the two boundaries can lead to a drastic modification of the morphology of the acoustic field in the waveguide. Experimental results are compared to numerical results obtained from high-order finite-difference based simulations of the 2D Navier-Stokes equations. The good agreement between the experimental distribution of the acoustic field and numerical results suggests that numerical simulations are promising as a predictive tool to study nonlinear acoustic propagation of acoustic waves in complex geometrical configurations with rigid boundaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate experimentally the early stage of the generation ofwaves by a turbulent wind at the surface of a viscous liquid. The spatio-temporal structure of the surface deformation is analyzed by the optical method Free Surface Synthetic Schlieren, which allows for time-resolved measurements with a micrometric accuracy. Because of the high viscosity of the liquid, the flow induced by the turbulent wind in the liquid remains laminar, with weak surface drift velocity. Two regimes of deformation of the liquid-air interface are identified. In the first regime, at low wind speed, the surface is dominated by rapidly propagating disorganized wrinkles, elongated in the streamwise direction, which correspond to the surface response to the pressure fluctuations advected by the turbulent airflow. The amplitude of these deformations increases approximately linearly with wind velocity and are essentially independent of the fetch (distance along the channel). Above a threshold in wind speed, we observe the growth of well defined gravity-capillary waves with crests nearly perpendicular to the wind direction. In this second regime, the wave amplitude increases with wind speed but far more quickly than in the first regime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the unsteady drag force, Fd, drag coefficient, Cd, and the relevant dynamic behaviors of waves caused by the interaction between a planar incident shock wave and a multi-sphere model are investigated by using imbedded accelerometers and a high-speed Schlieren system. The shock wave is produced in a horizontal 200 mm inner diameter circular shock tube with a 2000 mm × 200 mm × 200 mm transparent test section. The time history of Cd is obtained based on band-block and low-pass Fast Fourier Transformation filtering combined with Savitzky-Golay polynomial smoothing for the measured acceleration. The effects of shock Mach number, Ms, geometry of multi-sphere model, nondimensional distance between sphere centers, H, and channel blockage are analyzed. We find that all time histories of Cd have a similar double-peak shaped main structure. It is due to wave reflection, diffraction, interference, and convergence at different positions of the spheres. The peak Fd increases, whereas the peak Cd decreases monotonically with increasing Ms. The increase of shock strength due to shock focusing by upstream spheres increases the peak Fd of downstream spheres. Both the increase in sphere number and the decrease in distance between spheres promote wave interference between neighboring spheres. As long as the wave interference times are shorter than the peak times, the peak Fd and Cd are higher compared to a single sphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-intrusive quantitative fluid density measurement methods are essential in the stratified flow experiments. Digital imaging leads to synthetic schlieren methods in which the variations of the index of refraction are reconstructed computationally. In this study, an extension to one of these methods, called background oriented schlieren, is proposed. The extension enables an accurate reconstruction of the density field in stratified liquid experiments. Typically, the experiments are performed by the light source, background pattern, and the camera positioned on the opposite sides of a transparent vessel. The multimedia imaging through air-glass-water-glass-air leads to an additional aberration that destroys the reconstruction. A two-step calibration and image remapping transform are the key components that correct the images through the stratified media and provide a non-intrusive full-field density measurements of transparent liquids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modulation of shock foot oscillation due to energy deposition by repetitive laser pulses in shock wave-boundary layer interaction over an axisymmetric nose-cylinderflare model in Mach 1.92 flow was experimentally studied. From a series of 256 schlieren images, density oscillation spectra at each pixel were obtained. When laser pulses of approximately 7 mJ were deposited with a repetition frequency, fe, of 30 kHz or lower, the flare shock oscillation had a peak spectrum equivalent to the value of fe. However, with fe of 40 kHz-60 kHz, it experienced frequency modulation down to lower than 20 kHz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we discuss experimental observations on the dynamics of a fast, low energy capillary discharge when operated in argon and its properties as an intense source of extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) radiation. The discharge pre-ionization and self-triggering were accomplished by the use of the hollow cathode effect. This allowed a compact size and low inductance discharge with multi-kA current level and a quarter-period of ~10 ns at sub-Joule energy level. We used the novel moiré and schlieren diagnostics with a 12 ps laser to obtain the time evolution of the line electron density and to study the plasma dynamics. EUV spectroscopy and filtered diodes were also implemented to estimate the plasma temperature and density throughout the evolution of the discharge. EUV source size was measured by using a filtered slit-wire camera. We observed that EUV emission starts from a compressed plasma on axis during the second quarter-period of the current and continues until the fifth quarter-period. Ionization levels from Ar VII to X were observed. By comparing the EUV emission spectra with synthetic spectra, we found that at the onset of emission (~7 ns), the plasma is well fitted by a single Maxwellian electron distribution function with Te~12 eV and ne~1017cm-3. Close to peak emission (13 ns), plasma temperature and density increase to ~20 eV and ne~1018cm-3, respectively. However, in order to successfully match the experimental data, a two component electron distribution function was necessary. Later in time, a smaller fraction in the high energy component and higher temperature suggests homogenization of the plasma. The moiré and schlieren diagnostics showed multiple radial compression-waves merging on axis throughout the discharge; they are an important heating mechanism that leads to a period of severe turbulence at peak EUV emission. It was also observed that emission ceases when the axial maximum of the electron density collapses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to show the evidence of Mach stem formation for very weak shock waves with acoustic Mach numbers on the order of 10-3 to 10-2. Two representative cases are considered: reflection of shock pulses from a rigid surface and focusing of nonlinear acoustic beams. Reflection experiments are performed in air using spark-generated shock pulses. Shock fronts are visualized using a schlieren system. Both regular and irregular types of reflection are observed. Numerical simulations are performed to demonstrate the Mach stem formation in the focal region of periodic and pulsed nonlinear beams in water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate measurement of high-amplitude, broadband shock pulses in air is an important part of laboratory-scale experiments in atmospheric acoustics. Although various methods have been developed, specific drawbacks still exist and need to be addressed. Here, a schlieren optical method was used to reconstruct the pressure signatures of nonlinear spherically diverging short acoustic pulses generated using an electric spark source (2.5 kPa, 33 µs at 10 cm from the source) in homogeneous air. A high-speed camera was used to capture light rays deflected by refractive index inhomogeneities, caused by the acoustic wave. Pressure waveforms were reconstructed from the light intensity patterns in the recorded images using an Abel-type inversion method. Absolute pressure levels were determined by analyzing at different propagation distances the duration of the compression phase of pulses, which changed due to nonlinear propagation effects. Numerical modeling base on the generalized Burgers equation was used to evaluate the smearing of the waveform caused by finite exposure time of the high-speed camera and corresponding limitations in resolution of the schlieren technique. The proposed method allows the study of the evolution of spark-generated shock waves in air starting from the very short distances from the spark, 30 mm, up to 600 mm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]