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Key Points: • Land use such as agriculture and peat extraction alter the physical and hydraulic properties of the peat more strongly than other land uses • The top 30 cm peat depth was most affected by agriculture and peat extraction, as indicated by the bulk density, specific yield, and porosity values • The van Genuchten-Mualem soil water retention model was applied successfully to different layers of peat under different land use Undisturbed peatlands are effective carbon sinks and provide a variety of ecosystem services. However, anthropogenic disturbances, especially land drainage, strongly alter peat soil properties and jeopardize the benefits of peatlands. The effects of disturbances should therefore be assessed and predicted. To support accurate modeling, this study determined the physical and hydraulic properties of intact and disturbed peat samples collected from 59 sites (in total 3,073 samples) in Finland and Norway. The bulk density (BD), porosity, and specific yield (Sy) values obtained indicated that the top layer (0–30 cm depth) at agricultural and peat extraction sites was most affected by land use change. The BD in the top layer at agricultural, peat extraction, and forestry sites was 441%, 140%, and 92% higher, respectively, than that of intact peatlands. Porosity decreased with increased BD, but not linearly. Agricultural and peat extraction sites had the lowest saturated hydraulic conductivity, Sy, and porosity, and the highest BD of the land use options studied. The van Genuchten-Mualem (vGM) soil water retention curve (SWRC) and hydraulic conductivity (K) models proved to be applicable for the peat soils tested, providing values of SWRC, K, and vGM-parameters (α and n) for peat layers (top, middle and bottom) under different land uses. A decrease in peat soil water content of ≥10% reduced the unsaturated K values by two orders of magnitude. This unique data set can be used to improve hydrological modeling in peat-dominated catchments and for fuller integration of peat soils into large-scale hydrological models.

Catchment storage sustains ecologically important low flows in headwater systems. Understanding the factors controlling storage is essential in analysis of catchment vulnerability to global change. We calculated catchment storage and storage sensitivity of streamflow for 61 boreal headwater catchments in Finland. We also explored the connection between computed storage indices and low flow conditions. The relationships between selected climate, snow, and catchment characteristics and calculated storage properties and low flows were investigated, in order to assess the importance of different factors that render catchments vulnerable to climate and environmental change. We found that the most sensitive areas to climate change were located in the southern boreal coastal zone, with fine‐grained soils and agricultural areas. In contrast, catchments in the middle and northern boreal zone, with till and peatland soils and higher snow water equivalent values, were less sensitive under current conditions. In addition, we found a threshold at a snow to precipitation ratio of 0.35. Above that threshold, summer low flows were generally sensitive to changes in snow conditions, whereas below that threshold catchment characteristics gained importance and the sensitivity was more directly related to changes in temperature and timing of rainfall. These findings suggest that a warming climate will have pronounced impacts on hydrology and catchment sensitivity related to snow quantity and snow cover duration in certain snow to precipitation ratio zones. Moreover, land use activities had an impact on storage properties in agricultural and drained peatland areas, resulting in a negative effect on low flows.

The anthropogenic impacts of development and frequent droughts have limited Iran's water availability. This has major implications for Iran's agricultural sector which is responsible for about 90% of water consumption at the national scale. This study investigates if declining water availability impacted agriculture in Iran. Using the Mann‐Kendall and Sen's slope estimator methods, we explored the changes in Iran's agricultural production and area during the 1981‐2013 period. Despite decreasing water availability during this period, irrigated agricultural production and area continuously increased. This unsustainable agricultural development, which would have been impossible without the over‐abstraction of surface and ground water resources, has major long‐term water, food, environmental, and human security implications for Iran. Given the heavy reliance of the agricultural sector on water availability, it is important to examine if Iran's agriculture has been impacted by water availability changes in recent decades. The investigation of the long‐term impacts of natural water availability changes on agricultural activities in the country during the 1981–2013 period revealed that the agricultural sector in Iran continued to expand regardless of decreasing water availability in the country. This expansion was facilitated by the excessive use of nonrenewable water resources which has significant environmental and socioeconomic implications. Validerad;2020;Nivå 2;2020-10-22 (alebob)

Fully integrated physically based hydrological modeling is an essential method for increasing hydrological understanding of groundwater‐surface water (GW‐SW) interactions in peatlands and for predicting anthropogenic impacts on these unique ecosystems. Modeling studies represent peat soil in a simplistic manner, as a homogeneous layer of uniform thickness, but field measurements consistently show pronounced spatial variability in peatlands. This study evaluated uncertainty in groundwater levels and exfiltration fluxes associated with the simplified representation of the peat soil layer. For transferability of the results, impacts of selected topographical and hydrogeological conceptual models on GW‐SW exchange fluxes were simulated in a hypothetical hillslope representing a typical aquifer‐mire transect. The results showed that peat soil layer geometry defined the simulated spatial GW‐SW exchange patterns and groundwater flow paths, whereas total groundwater exfiltration flux to the hillslope and groundwater level in the peatland were only subtly altered by different conceptual peat soil geometry models. GW‐SW interactions were further explored using different scenarios and dimensionless parameters for peat hydraulic conductivity and hillslope‐peatland system slope. The results indicated that accurate representation of physical peat soil properties and landscape topography is important when the main objective is to model spatial GW‐SW exchange. Groundwater level in virtual peatland was not greatly affected by groundwater drawdown in an adjacent aquifer, but the magnitude and spatial distribution of GW‐SW interactions was significantly altered. This means that commonly used groundwater depth observations near peat‐mineral soil interfaces and within peatlands may not be a suitable indicator for monitoring the hydrological state of groundwater‐dependent peatland ecosystems.

Drainage is known to affect peatland natural hydrology and water quality, but peatland restoration is considered to ameliorate peatland degradation. Using a replicated BACIPS (Before-After-Control-Impact Paired Series) design, we investigated 24 peatlands, all drained for forestry and subsequently restored, and 19 pristine control boreal peatlands with high temporal and spatial resolution data on hydroclimate and pore water quality. In drained conditions, total nitrogen (Ntot), total phosphorus (Ptot), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in pore water were several-fold higher than observed at pristine control sites, highlighting the impacts of long-term drainage on pore water quality. In general, pore water DOC and Ntot decreased after restoration measures but still remained significantly higher than at pristine control sites, indicating long time lags in restoration effects. Different peatland classes and trophic levels (vegetation gradient) responded differently to restoration, primarily due to altered hydrology and varying acidity levels. Sites that were hydrologically overrestored (inundated) showed higher Ptot, Ntot, and DOC than well-restored or insufficiently restored sites, indicating the need to optimize natural-like hydrological regimes when restoring peatlands drained for forestry. Rich fens (median pH 6.2–6.6) showed lower pore water Ptot, Ntot, and DOC than intermediate and poor peats (pH 4.0–4.6) both before and after restoration. Nutrients and DOC in pore water increased in the first year postrestoration but decreased thereafter. The most important variables related to pore water quality were trophic level, peatland class, water table level, and soil and air temperature.

Organic matter and nutrient export from drained peatlands is affected by complex hydrological and biogeochemical interactions. Here, partial least squares regression (PLSR) was used to relate various soil and catchment characteristics to variations in chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations in runoff. Peat core samples and water quality data were collected from 15 peat extraction sites in Finland. PLSR models constructed by cross-validation and variable selection routines predicted 92, 88, and 95% of the variation in mean COD, TN, and TP concentration in runoff, respectively. The results showed that variations in COD were mainly related to net production (temperature and water-extractable dissolved organic carbon (DOC)), hydrology (topographical relief), and solubility of dissolved organic matter (peat sulfur (S) and calcium (Ca) concentrations). Negative correlations for peat S and runoff COD indicated that acidity from oxidation of organic S stored in peat may be an important mechanism suppressing organic matter leaching. Moreover, runoff COD was associated with peat aluminum (Al), P, and sodium (Na) concentrations. Hydrological controls on TN and COD were similar (i.e., related to topography), whereas degree of humification, bulk density, and water-extractable COD and Al provided additional explanations for TN concentration. Variations in runoff TP concentration were attributed to erosion of particulate P, as indicated by a positive correlation with suspended sediment concentration (SSC), and factors associated with metal-humic complexation and P adsorption (peat Al, water-extractable P, and water-extractable iron (Fe)).

The unique biodiversity and plant composition of peatlands rely on a mix of different water sources: precipitation, runoff and groundwater (GW). Methods used to delineate areas of ecosystem groundwater dependence, such as vegetation mapping and solute tracer studies, are indirect and lack the potential to assess temporal changes in hydrology, information needed in GW management. This paper outlines a new methodology for mapping groundwater-dependent areas (GDAs) in peatlands using a 2H and 18O isotope mass balance method. The approach reconstructs the initial isotopic composition of the peat pore water in the uppermost peat layer before its modification by evaporation. It was assumed that pore water in this layer subject to evaporation is a two-component mixture consisting of GW and precipitation input from the month preceding the sampling period. A Bayesian Monte Carlo isotope mixing model was applied to calculate the proportions of GW and rainwater in the sampled pore water and to assess uncertainties. The approach revealed large spatial variability in the contribution of GW to the pore water present in the top layer of peatland, covering the range from approximately 0 to 100%. Results show that the current GW protection zones determined by Finnish legislation do not cover the GDAs in peatlands and highlight a need for better classification of groundwater-dependent ecosystems and conceptualisation of aquifer-ecosystem interactions. Our approach offers an efficient tool for mapping GDAs and quantifying the contribution of GW to peatland pore water. However, more studies are needed to test the method for different peatland types. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

A before-after-control approach was used to analyze the impact of peatland restoration on hydrology, based on high temporal resolution water-table (WT) data from 43 boreal peatlands representative of a south-boreal to north-boreal climate gradient. During the study, 24 forestry drained sites were restored and 19 pristine peatlands used as control sites. Different approaches were developed and used to analyze WT changes (mean WT position, WT fluctuation, WT hydrograph, recession, and storage characteristics). Restoration increased WT in most cases but particularly in spruce mires, followed by pine mires and fens. Before restoration, the WT fluctuation (WTF) was large, indicating peat temporary storage gain (SG). After restoration, the WT hydrograph recession limb slopes and SG coefficients (Rc) declined significantly. Drainage or restoration did not significantly affect mean diurnal WT fluctuations, used here as a proxy for evapotranspiration. Overall, the changes in WT characteristics following restoration indicated creation of favorable hydrological conditions for recovery of functional peatland ecosystems in previously degraded peatland sites. This was supported by calculation of bryophyte species abundance thresholds for WT. These results can be used to optimize restoration efforts in different peatland systems and as a qualitative conceptual basis for future restoration operations.

Erosion from peat extraction areas is known to cause siltation of water courses and poor water quality. However, the main soil parameters affecting peat erosion and suspended sediment (SS) yields from different catchments are not well understood. This paper used peat properties (degree of humification, peat type, ash content, porosity, moisture content, bulk density, and shear strength) and novel erosion threshold measurements from intact soil cores to explain peat erodibility and spatial variations in SS concentrations (SSCs) and SS loads (SSLs) at 20 Finnish peat extraction sites. The erosion threshold measurements suggested that critical shear stresses for particle entrainment decrease with increasing degree of humification (von Post scale) and are significantly lower in well-decomposed peat than in slightly or moderately decomposed peat. Two critical shear stresses were obtained from moderately decomposed peat samples, indicating a degree of surface armoring by coarse peat fibers. Monitored long-term average SSC was highest at study sites with well-decomposed peat, while very fine-grained mineral subsoil explained some of the highest long-term SSC in areas where drainage ditches penetrated below the upper peat layer. Average SSL (kg d−1) at the study sites was best explained (R2 = 0.89) by average discharge and surface peat decomposition level. Overall, this study provides new knowledge on peat erosion and critical shear stresses that can be used in water conservation and sediment management practices for cutover peatlands and other similar land uses.