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Archaeology and indigenous history of Native Amazonian peoples in the Upper Xingu region of Brazil reveal unexpectedly complex regional settlement patterns and large-scale transformations of local landscapes over the past millennium. Mapping and excavation of archaeological structures document pronounced human-induced alteration of the forest cover, particularly in relation to large, dense late-prehistoric settlements (circa 1200 to 1600 A.D.). The findings contribute to debates on human carrying capacity, population size and settlement patterns, anthropogenic impacts on the environment, and the importance of indigenous knowledge, as well as contributing to the pride of place of the native peoples in this part of the Amazon., Was the Amazon a natural forest in 1492, sparsely populated and essentially pristine, as has been traditionally thought? Or, instead, were parts of it densely settled and better viewed as [...]

The article focuses on the intentional creation of carbon-rich dark earth soils in the Amazon and its significance. Topics include the practices of modern Indigenous communities in enriching the soil, proposes a model for the formation of ancient dark earth, and emphasizes the value of Indigenous knowledge for sustainable rainforest management.

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article "Brazilian Politics Threaten Environmental Policies" in the August 19, 2016 issue, regarding the risks posed by environmental policy reforms to the conservation of Amazonian biodiversity.