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A three-dimensional framework of perceived fatigability emphasises the need to differentiate between the qualitatively distinct inputs of sensory-discriminatory, affective-motivational and cognitive-evaluative processes that shape the perceptual milieu during prolonged endurance exercise. This article reviews the framework's utility to better understand how cause-effect relationships come to be and how perception-action coupling underpins pacing behaviour and performance fatigability. Preliminary evidence supports the hypotheses that perceived strain plays a primary role in trajectory regulation of pacing behaviour, core affect plays a primary and mediatory role in behavioural performance regulation, and the mindset shift associated with an action crisis plays a primary role in the intensity dependent volitional self-regulatory control of conflicting motivational drives. The constructs hypothesised to underpin perceived fatigability are systematically linked, context-dependent, constraint-based, distinguishable and show proportional continuous interdependency. They are further interrelated with dynamic changes in pacing behaviour, performance fatigability and physiological disturbance. Appropriate measurement selections for the subordinate constructs perceived physical strain, perceived mental strain, valence, arousal, action crisis and flow state are discussed. To better understand the non-proportional discontinuous effects of fatigue on discrete shifts in thought states and mindsets, non-linear dynamical systems theory is introduced as an unbiased overarching theory of governing principles in the temporal evolution of complex systems. This provides the opportunity to discuss the bio-psycho-social fatigue phenomenon from a dynamical and holistic perspective. The proposed framework offers a sophisticated alternative to the Gestalt concept of perceived exertion and comprehensively accounts for the psychophysiological processes that determine pacing behaviour and performance. It has the potential to enrich theory development and facilitate a deeper understanding of the psychophysiological regulation of goal-directed exercise behaviour.

Introduction: A three-dimensional framework of centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour emphasised the integration of distinct sensory-discriminatory, affective-motivational and cognitive-evaluative dimensions that underpin perceived fatigability. This study aimed to capture the complex interdependencies and temporal dynamics in these processes, their interrelations with observed pacing behaviour, performance and biochemical variables as well as their performance level- and competition outcome-dependent variances., Methods: Twenty-three cyclists of distinct performance level categories engaged in individual and head-to-head competition time trials against a performance-matched opponent. Sensory, affective and cognitive processes were respectively assessed with the constructs perceived physical strain and perceived mental strain, valence and felt arousal underpinning core affect and action crisis characterised by a shift from an implemental to a deliberative mindset., Results: Performance level- and competition outcome-dependent variances and differential temporal dynamics in constructs were associated with alterations in pacing behaviour, performance and physiological disturbance. Perceived physical and mental strain were primarily associated with observed pacing behaviour as necessary to align planned behaviour with current physiological state. Valence and arousal were primarily associated with differential responses in performance regulation. The mindset shift associated with an action crisis was primarily associated with non-adaptive, psycho-neuro-endocrinological distress response., Conclusion: The proposed constructs are interdependent in a nonlinear dynamic fashion, context dependent, constraint based, distinguishable by well-trained cyclists and interrelated with observed pacing behaviour, performance and physiological disturbance. The proposed framework provides a more comprehensive alternative to the Gestalt concept of perceived exertion and more completely accounts for centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour.

The extent to which athletic pacing decisions are made consciously or subconsciously is a prevailing issue. In this article we discuss why the one-dimensional conscious-subconscious debate that has reigned in the pacing literature has suppressed our understanding of the multidimensional processes that occur in pacing decisions. How do we make our decisions in real-life competitive situations? What information do we use and how do we respond to opponents? These are questions that need to be explored and better understood, using smartly designed experiments. The paper provides clarity about key conscious, preconscious, subconscious and unconscious concepts, terms that have previously been used in conflicting and confusing ways. The potential of dual process theory in articulating multidimensional aspects of intuitive and deliberative decision-making processes is discussed in the context of athletic pacing along with associated process-tracing research methods. In attempting to refine pacing models and improve training strategies and psychological skills for athletes, the dual-process framework could be used to gain a clearer understanding of (1) the situational conditions for which either intuitive or deliberative decisions are optimal; (2) how intuitive and deliberative decisions are biased by things such as perception, emotion and experience; and (3) the underlying cognitive mechanisms such as memory, attention allocation, problem solving and hypothetical thought.

Background: Depression symptom severity and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are significant predictors of mortality and disability. However, the relationship between the two is unclear., Objective: This meta-analysis assessed the relationship between depression symptom severity and CRF in healthy and depressed adults (aged 18 years and over)., Search Methods: The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar and ProQuest databases were browsed for relevant English-language studies published from January 2000 to August 2014., Selection Criteria: Studies reporting a correlation between a depression scale and maximum oxygen consumption (VO2peak), as well as studies from the data of which such a correlation could be calculated, were included in this analysis., Data Analysis: Correlation coefficients (CCs) were converted to Fisher's z values, and the analysis was performed using a random-effects model. Then, summary effects and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were converted back to CCs., Results: Sixteen studies (totalling 4039 participants) were included in this analysis. A modest correlation between depression symptom severity and CRF was found (CC -0.16, 95% CI -0.21 to -0.10), appearing stronger in male participants (CC - 0.22, 95% CI -0.26 to -0.18) than in female participants (CC -0.12, 95% CI -0.19 to -0.05; p = 0.01). There was no difference in the summary effect between healthy and depressed adults (p = 0.43). Heterogeneity was moderate (I2 = 33%; p = 0.09)., Conclusions: Depression symptom severity is inversely correlated with CRF, and this correlation is stronger in men than in women. Clinical and prognostic implications of the correlation are discussed. These findings should stimulate further research on the effects of treating one variable on the other.

Successful participation in competitive endurance activities requires continual regulation of muscular work rate in order to maximise physiological performance capacities, meaning that individuals must make numerous decisions with regards to the muscular work rate selected at any point in time. Decisions relating to the setting of appropriate goals and the overall strategic approach to be utilised are made prior to the commencement of an event, whereas tactical decisions are made during the event itself. This review examines current theories of decision-making in an attempt to explain the manner in which regulation of muscular work is achieved during athletic activity. We describe rational and heuristic theories, and relate these to current models of regulatory processes during self-paced exercise in an attempt to explain observations made in both laboratory and competitive environments. Additionally, we use rational and heuristic theories in an attempt to explain the influence of the presence of direct competitors on the quality of the decisions made during these activities. We hypothesise that although both rational and heuristic models can plausibly explain many observed behaviours in competitive endurance activities, the complexity of the environment in which such activities occur would imply that effective rational decision-making is unlikely. However, at present, many proposed models of the regulatory process share similarities with rational models. We suggest enhanced understanding of the decision-making process during self-paced activities is crucial in order to improve the ability to understand regulation of performance and performance outcomes during athletic activity.

The aim of an optimal pacing strategy during exercise is to enhance performance whilst ensuring physiological limits are not surpassed, which has been shown to result in a metabolic reserve at the end of the exercise. There has been debate surrounding the theoretical models that have been proposed to explain how pace is regulated, with more recent research investigating a central control of exercise regulation. Deception has recently emerged as a common, practical approach to manipulate key variables during exercise. There are a number of ways in which deception interventions have been designed, each intending to gain particular insights into pacing behaviour and performance. Deception methodologies can be conceptualised according to a number of dimensions such as deception timing (prior to or during exercise), presentation frequency (blind, discontinuous or continuous) and type of deception (performance, biofeedback or environmental feedback). However, research evidence on the effects of deception has been perplexing and the use of complex designs and varied methodologies makes it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions about how pacing strategy and performance are affected by deception. This review examines existing research in the area of deception and pacing strategies, and provides a critical appraisal of the different methodological approaches used to date. It is hoped that this analysis will inform the direction and methodology of future investigations in this area by addressing the mechanisms through which deception impacts upon performance and by elucidating the potential application of deception techniques in training and competitive settings.

Effective regulation of pace enables the majority of runners to complete competitive endurance events without mishap. However, some runners do experience exercise-induced collapse associated with postural hypotension, which in rare cases results from life-threatening conditions such as cardiac disorders, cerebral events, heat stroke and hyponatraemia. Despite the experience of either catastrophic system failure or extreme peripheral muscle fatigue, some runners persist in attempting to reach the finish line, and this often results in a sequence of dynamic changes in posture and gait that we have termed the 'Foster collapse positions'. The initial stage involves an unstable gait and the runner assumes the 'Early Foster' collapse position with hips slightly flexed and their head lowered. This unstable gait further degrades into a shuffle referred to as the 'Half Foster' collapse position characterized by hip flexion of approximately 90° with the trunk and head parallel to the ground. At this point, the muscles of postural support and the co-ordination of propulsion begin to be compromised. If the condition worsens, the runner will fall to the ground and assume the 'Full Foster' collapse position, which involves crawling forwards on knees and elbows towards the finish line, with their trunk angled such that the head is at a lower angle than the hips. Upon reaching the finish line, or sometimes before that, the runner may collapse and remain prone until recovering either with or without assistance or medical treatment. The Foster collapse positions are indicative of a final, likely primordial, protective mechanism designed to attenuate postural hypotension, cardiac 'pump' insufficiency or cerebral blood flow deficiency. Continuing to attempt to reach the finish line in this impaired state is also perhaps indicative of a high psychological drive or a variety of neurological and psychological pathologies such as diminished sensitivity to interoceptive feedback, unrealistic situational appraisal or extreme motivational drives. A better understanding of the physiological, neurological and psychological antecedents of the Foster collapse sequence remains an important issue with practical implications for runner safety and theoretical understanding of collapses during exercise.