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Increasingly, public discourse occurs on social media including about national parks, but how much of it is relevant to park management and what topics/events cause debate? Using a case study approach, we conducted a content and sentiment analysis of tweets about seven South African national parks (Table Mountain, Karoo, Addo Elephant, Pilanesberg, West Coast, Tsitsikamma and Golden Gate Highlands) posted over 14 months on Twitter to assess what topics were discussed for which parks, by whom, when, what emotions were expressed and how such information could be useful for management. Most of the discourse (70% of 10,292 tweets) related to management, including tweets about biodiversity (34%), tourism (27%), natural attractions (17%) as well as crime and safety (10%). Most Tweeters were South African (60%) with other Tweeters from other countries in Africa (4%), the USA (12%) or UK (7%). Although the 2% of accounts from news and conservation organisations had massive followings, most tweets were from individuals, were mainly positive and included emotions such as anticipation and trust. Peaks in tweets often related to specific events in the parks reported in the news. Our study revealed that despite issues with Twitter, such as geographic bias, shortcomings with search terms and short texts, park authorities could consider monitoring Twitter to better understand the interests and opinions of local and international communities. Managers could also use Twitter to monitor reactions to specific events in parks, disseminating information to stakeholders and responding to contentious issues., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Public participation is critical for planning and management of protected areas. With people increasingly using social media, including Twitter, to obtain news and express opinions, park agencies should recognize the utility of monitoring and engaging with this public discourse. We used a conservation culturomics approach to analyse Tweets during a period of controversy about the management of large mammals (horses) in a park (Kosciuszko National Park in Australia), including examining who talked about what, when and what emotions were expressed. An automated programming interface was used to collect metadata for Tweets about the Park, with keywords coded while sentiments and emotions were analysed using a standard lexicon of terms. The debate over introduced wild/feral horses in the Park dominated the discourse, accounting for 56% of the 2085 Tweets referring by name to the Park over 275 days. Many Tweets referred to horses (44.8%) and/or used the alternative term, brumbies (15%). They were more likely to be Retweets, be sent by Australians, with a potential reach of over 5 million followers. Peaks in Tweets related to specific events in the news, with Tweets sent by journalists and others in a professional capacity or specific organisations engaged in the debate more likely to be retweeted. Despite considerable polarisation in the broader debate, including in the traditional media and on other social media platforms, the discourse on Twitter focused mainly on the environmental impacts of horses, and ways to reduce their numbers, rather than wanting to keep horses in the Park. There are important issues with the use of Twitter data including challenges in identifying relevant Tweets, biases in who Tweets and what is retweeted, limited text in Tweets, and increasing focus of the rights to privacy online. Twitter, however, remains a relatively fast, timely and often free way to listen into public debate with a large potential audience, is simple to analyse and hence provides valuable insights into public reactions to park management decisions complementing other data sources., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

For most protected areas visitor data is limited, even for popular activities such as mountain biking, walking and running. With the exponential increase in volunteered geographic information, it is now possible to assess visitation to parks by people using social media. The number of routes posted to MapMyFitness, Strava and Wikiloc were used to assess the relative popularity of 40 national parks in South East Queensland, Australia for mountain biking, walking and running. Then, using generalised linear models, the topographic, geographic, management and environmental variables that best predicted park popularity among users were identified. There were more than 450,000 visits to the parks, with 98% of routes posted on Strava. Distance (road and direct distance) from large urban areas best predicted visitation using routes from MapMyFitness and Strava with three parks within 2 km of urban areas experiencing over 70,000 visits (Strava). For urban parks, recreational trail length best predicted usage, while for more remote parks, the direct distance to urban areas remained the most important factor. In contrast, people using the adventure platform Wikiloc preferred more remote parks with rugged terrain. The results highlight factors affecting park popularity including distance. With the expansion and densification of cities, including in Australia, urban and peri-urban parks are likely to experience increasing levels of use for fitness-based activities while more remote parks may remain attractive among people focused on adventure., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Globally there are hundreds of thousands of kilometres of recreational trails traversing natural areas of high conservation value: but what are their impacts and do impacts differ among trails? We compared the effects of four common types of recreational trails [(1) narrow and (2) medium width informal bare earth trails and (3) gravel and (4) tarmac/concrete formal trails] on vegetation adjacent to trails in a high conservation value plant community that is popular for mountain biking and hiking in Australia. Plant species composition was recorded in quadrats along the edge of the four types of trails and in control sites away from trails. Vegetation cover, the cover of individual growth forms, and species richness along the edges of all four types of trails were similar to the controls, although the wider trails affected plant composition, with the tarmac and gravel trails favouring different species. With very few comparative studies, more research is required to allow managers and researchers to directly compare differences in the severity and types of impacts on vegetation among trails. In the meantime, limiting damage to vegetation on the edge of hardened trails during construction, use and maintenance is important, and hardening trails may not always be appropriate., (Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Reflecting the popularity of nature-based activities such as hiking and mountain biking, there are thousands of kilometres of recreational trails worldwide traversing a range of natural areas. These trails have environmental impacts on soils and vegetation, but where has there been research, what impacts have been found and how were they measured? Using a systematic quantitative literature review methodology, we assessed the impacts of trails on vegetation and soils, highlighting what is known, but also key knowledge gaps. Of the 59 original research papers identified on this topic that have been published in English language peer-reviewed academic journals, most were for research conducted in protected areas (71%), with few from developing countries (17%) or threatened ecosystems (14%). The research is concentrated in a few habitats and biodiversity hotspots, mainly temperate woodland, alpine grassland and Mediterranean habitats, often in the USA (32%) or Australia (20%). Most examined formal trails, with just 15% examining informal trails and 11% assessing both types. Nearly all papers report the results of observational surveys (90%), collecting quantitative data (66%) with 24% using geographic information systems. There was an emphasis on assessing trail impacts at a local scale, either on the trail itself and/or over short gradients away from the trail edge. Many assessed changes in composition and to some degree, structure, of vegetation and soils with the most common impacts documented including reduced vegetation cover, changes in plant species composition, trail widening, soil loss and soil compaction. There were 14 papers assessing how these local impacts can accumulate at the landscape scale. Few papers assessed differences in impacts among trails (7 papers), changes in impacts over time (4), species-specific responses (3) and only one assessed effects on plant community functioning. This review provides evidence that there are key research gaps including assessing informal trails, comparing trail types, landscape and temporal scale impacts, functional responses and impacts on threatened ecosystems/species. A more diverse geographic spread of research is also required including in regions experiencing rapid growth in tourism and recreation., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Functional traits reflect plant responses to disturbance, including from visitor impacts. The impacts of mountain biking and hiking on functional composition were compared using a common experimental protocol in a subalpine grassland in the Australian Alps. The overlapping cover of all species was recorded two weeks after different intensities of hiking (200 and 500 passes) and mountain biking (none, 25, 75, 200 and 500 passes). Species' functional trait data were combined with their relative cover to calculate community trait weighted means for plant height, leaf area, percentage leaf dry matter content and Specific Leaf Area (SLA). Species such as Poa fawcettiae with larger leaves and SLA but lower dry weight content of leaves were more resistant to use, with differences between bikers and hikers only apparent at the highest levels of use tested. This differs from some vegetation communities in Europe where plants with smaller leaves were more resistant to hiking. More research using functional traits may account for differences in species responses to trampling. Managers of conservation areas used for hiking and biking need to minimise off trail use by both user groups., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Recreational trails are one of the most common types of infrastructure used for nature-based activities such as hiking and mountain biking worldwide. Depending on their design, location, construction, maintenance and use, these trails differ in their environmental impacts. There are few studies, however, comparing the impacts of different trail types including between formal management-created trails and informal visitor-created trails. Although both types of trails can be found in remote natural areas, dense networks of them often occur in forests close to cities where they experience intense visitor use. To assess the relative impacts of different recreational trails in urban forests, we compared the condition of the trail surface, loss of forest strata and changes in tree structure caused by seven types of trails (total network 46.1 km) traversing 17 remnants of an endangered urban forest in Australia. After mapping and classifying all trails, we assessed their impact on the forest condition at 125 sites (15 sites per trail type, plus 15 control sites within undisturbed forest). On the trail sites, the condition of the trail surface, distance from the trail edge to four forest strata (litter, understory, midstorey and tree cover) and structure of the tree-line were assessed. Informal trails generally had poorer surface conditions and were poorly-designed and located. Per site, formal and informal trails resulted in similar loss of forest strata, with wider trails resulting in greater loss of forest. Because there were more informal trails, however, they accounted for the greatest cumulative forest loss. Structural impacts varied, with the widest informal trails and all formal hardened trails resulting in similar reductions in canopy cover and tree density but an increase in saplings. These structural impacts are likely a function of the unregulated and intense use of large informal trails, and disturbance from the construction and maintenance of formal trails. The results demonstrate that different types of recreational trails vary in the type and range of impacts they cause to forests. They highlight the importance of careful consideration towards management options when dealing with trail networks especially in areas of high conservation value., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Hiking trails, which are among the most common forms of infrastructure created for nature-based tourism, can alter key ecological processes. Trails can damage plants that facilitate the establishment and growth of other species leading to changes in community and functional composition. This can be a particular concern in harsh alpine ecosystems where plant communities are often dominated by one or two keystone species that provide shelter to a suite of beneficiary species. We analysed how a hiking trail affects interspecific facilitation by a dominant trampling-sensitive nurse shrub in the highest National Park in Australia. First we assessed the effects of the trail on the abundance, size and density of the nurse shrub at different distances from the trail. We then compared species richness and composition between areas in, and out, of the nurse shrub's canopy at different distances from the trail. To better understand why some species may benefit from facilitation and any effects of the trail on the quality of facilitation we compared functional composition between quadrats using community trait weighted means calculated by combining plant composition with species functional traits (canopy height, leaf area, % dry weight of leaves and specific leaf area). The abundance, size and density of nurse shrubs was lower on the trail edges than further away, particularly on the leeward edge, where there was more bare ground and less shrub cover. There were differences in species richness, cover, composition and functional composition in and outside the nurse shrub canopy. The shrubs appeared to facilitate species with more competitive, but less stress tolerant traits (e.g. taller plants with leaves that were larger, had high specific leaf area and low dry matter content). However, despite reductions in nurse shrubs near the trail, where they do exist, they appear to provide the same 'quality' of facilitation as nurse shrubs further away. However, longer-term effects may be occurring as the loss of nurse shrubs alters the wind profile of the ridgeline and therefore succession. The use of a steel mesh walkway along the trail may facilitate the regeneration of nurse shrubs and other plants that require protection from wind. Our results highlight the importance of diversifying recreation ecology research to assess how trails affect important ecological processes., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Tourism and recreation are diverse and popular activities. They may also contribute to the risk of extinction for some plants because of the range and severity of their impacts, including in protected areas: but which species, where and how? To evaluate the extent to which tourism and recreation may be threatening process for plants, we conducted a continental level review of listed threats to endangered vascular plants using data from Australia. Of the 659 vascular plant species listed as critically endangered or endangered by the Australian Government, tourism and recreation were listed as a threat(s) for 42%. This is more than those listed as threatened by climate change (26%) and close to the proportion listed as threatened by altered fire regimes (47%). There are plant species with tourism and recreation listed threats in all States and Territories and from all but one bioregion in Australia. Although more than 45 plant families have species with tourism and recreation listed as threats, orchids were the most common species listed as at risk from these threats (90 species). The most common types of threats listed were visitors collecting plants in protected areas (113 species), trampling by hikers and others (84 species), damage from recreational vehicles (59 species) and road infrastructure (39 species). Despite the frequency with which tourism and recreation were listed as threats in Australia, research quantifying these threats and methods to ameliorate their impacts are still limited. Although this lack of information contributes to the challenge of managing tourism and recreation, impacts from visitors will often be easier to manage within natural areas than those from larger scale threats such as altered fire regimes and climate change., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Mountain biking is an increasingly popular, but sometimes controversial, activity in protected areas. Limited research on its impacts, including studies comparing biking with hiking, contributes to the challenges for mangers in assessing its appropriateness. The impacts of mountain bike riding off trail were compared to those of hiking on subalpine grassland in Australia using a modification of a common trampling experimental methodology. Vegetation and soil parameters were measured immediately and two weeks after different intensities of mountain biking (none, 25, 75, 200 and 500 passes across slope, 200 pass up and down slope) and hiking (200 and 500 passes across slope). There were reductions in vegetation height, cover and species richness, as well as changes in species composition and increases in litter and soil compaction with riding. Riding up and down a moderate slope had a greater impact than riding across the slope. Hiking also affected vegetation height, cover and composition. Mountain biking caused more damage than hiking but only at high use (500 passes). Further research including other ecosystems, topography, styles of riding, and weather conditions are required, but under the conditions tested here, hiking and mountain biking appear to be similar in their environmental impacts., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Hiking, horse riding and mountain biking are popular in protected areas in Australia and the United States of America. To help inform the often contentious deliberations about use of protected areas for these three types of activities, we review recreation ecology research in both countries. Many impacts on vegetation, soils and trails are similar for the three activities, although there can be differences in severity. Impacts include damage to existing trails, soil erosion, compaction and nutrification, changes in hydrology, trail widening, exposure of roots, rocks and bedrock. There can be damage to plants including reduction in vegetation height and biomass, changes in species composition, creation of informal trails and the spread of weeds and plant pathogens. Due to differences in evolutionary history, impacts on soil and vegetation can be greater in Australia than in the USA. There are specific social and biophysical impacts of horses such as those associated with manure and urine, grazing and the construction and use of tethering yards and fences. Mountain bike specific impacts include soil and vegetation damage from skidding and the construction of unauthorised trails, jumps, bridges and other trail technical features. There are gaps in the current research that should be filled by additional research: (1) on horse and mountain bike impacts to complement those on hiking. The methods used need to reflect patterns of actual usage and be suitable for robust statistical analysis; (2) that directly compares types and severity of impacts among activities; and (3) on the potential for each activity to contribute to the spread of weeds and plant pathogens. Additional research will assist managers and users of protected areas in understanding the relative impacts of these activities, and better ways to manage them. It may not quell the debates among users, managers and conservationists, but it will help put it on a more scientific footing., (2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The Australian Alps, which are of high conservation value, are popular summer bushwalking destinations. Experimental trampling trials using a standardized methodology were conducted to determine the resistance and resilience of the two common vegetation types: tall alpine herbfield and subalpine grasslands. Vegetation parameters were measured in lanes subject to control (no trampling), 30, 100, 200, 500 and 700 passes at five sites prior to trampling, immediately post trampling, 2 weeks, 6 weeks and 1 year post trampling. Vegetation height, cover of graminoids and herbs, as well as net species richness all declined with trampling, while litter cover increased. Thresholds for damage varied between the two communities and among the different vegetation parameters. The resistance indices for the two communities (number of passes resulting in 50% reduction in vegetation cover), however, were similar at around 440-450 passes indicating that these two communities are among the most resistant of the 19 alpine-subalpine communities that have been tested around the world, but only of moderate resistance compared to non-alpine communities. The two communities showed limited recovery with damage still evident 1 year post trampling. This indicates that they have only moderate tolerance to damage due to moderate resistance, but low resilience.

Although humans are a major mechanism for short and long distance seed dispersal, there is limited research testing clothing as a vector. The effect of different types of material (sports vs hiking socks), or different items of clothing (boots, socks, laces vs legs) or the same item (socks) worn in different places on seed composition were assessed in Kosciuszko National Park, Australia. Data was analyzed using Repeated Measures ANOVA, independent and paired t-tests, Multi-dimensional Scaling Ordinations and Analysis of Similarity. A total of 24,776 seeds from 70 taxa were collected from the 207 pieces of clothing sampled, with seed identified from 31 native and 19 non-native species. Socks worn off-track collected more native seeds while those worn on roadsides collected more non-native seeds. Sports socks collected a greater diversity of seeds and more native seeds than hiking socks. Boots, uncovered socks and laces collect more seeds than covered socks and laces, resulting in 17% fewer seeds collected when wearing trousers. With seeds from over 179 species (134 recognized weeds) collected on clothing in this, and nine other studies, it is clear that clothing contributes to unintended human mediated seed dispersal, including for many invasive species.

This paper reviews recent research into the impact of recreation and tourism in protected areas on plant biodiversity and vegetation communities in Australia. Despite the international significance of the Australian flora and increasing visitation to protected areas there has been limited research on recreational and tourism impacts in Australia. As overseas, there are obvious direct impacts of recreation and tourism such as clearing of vegetation for infrastructure or damage from trampling, horse riding, mountain biking and off road vehicles. As well, there are less obvious but potentially more severe indirect impacts. This includes self-propagating impacts associated with the spread of some weeds from trails and roads. It also includes the severe impact on native vegetation, including many rare and threatened plants, from spread of the root rot fungus Phytopthora cinnamomi. This review highlights the need for more recreational ecology research in Australia.

Tourism infrastructure such as walking tracks can have negative effects on vegetation including in mountain regions. In the alpine area around continental Australia's highest mountain, Mt Kosciuszko (2228 m), there is a range of walking tracks (paved, gravel and raised steel mesh surfaces) in addition to an extensive network of informal/non-hardened tracks. Vegetation characteristics were compared between track types on/under tracks, on the track verge, and in the adjacent native vegetation. For a raised steel mesh walkway there was no difference in vegetation under the walkway, on the verge, and 3m away. In contrast, for a non-hardened track there was 35% bare ground on the track surface but no other detectable impacts. Gravel and paved tracks had distinct verges largely comprising bare ground and exotic species. For non-hardened tracks there was an estimated 270 m2 of disturbance per km of track. For wide gravel tracks the combined area of bare ground, exotic plants and gravel was estimated as 4290 m2 per km, while for narrow gravel tracks it was estimated as 2940 m2 per km. For paved tracks there was around 2680 m2 per km of damage. In contrast, there was no detectable effect of raised steel mesh walkway on vegetation highlighting some of the benefits of this surface over other track types.