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Coffee pulp contains a considerable number of phenolic compounds such as chlorogenic acid and ferulic acid that can be extracted with the help of biological agents to produce bioactive phenolic compounds. This study investigated the impact of solid-state fermentation of coffee pulp using Aspergillus spp. The research focused on evaluating the effects of fermentation on the yield of coffee pulp extract, as well as its total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and anti-inflammatory activity. Fermentation was carried out at room temperature (27∘C) for 7 d using Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and mixed cultures of A. nigerand A. oryzaeto enhance the yield and bioactivities of the coffee pulp extract. Biomass dry weight and substrate consumption were monitored daily, followed by extraction of the fermented coffee pulp. The yield, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and anti-inflammatory activity of the extract were also determined. The growth of A. nigercultures was found to be optimum on the 5th day of fermentation while A. oryzaeand mixed cultures were optimal on the 4th day of fermentation. Fermentation of coffee pulp with Aspergillus spp. effectively increased the extract yield (6.2–8.8%) and total phenolic content (59.9–64.4 mg GAE g-1) up to 83% and 111% as compared to the control (unfermented coffee pulp). The fermentation also enhanced the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of the coffee pulp extract with the IC50(half of the maximal inhibitory concentration) decreased up to 69% and 51%, respectively. Statistically, the total phenolic content in the extract had a significant negative effect on the IC50values of the antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory activity of the fermented samples. This indicates that the higher the total phenolic content, the stronger the antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory activity of the extract. The findings suggest that the coffee pulp can be utilized as an alternative source of phenolic compounds with good bioactivity.

Chronic hepatitis B virus infection (CHB) remains a global health concern, with currently available antiviral therapies demonstrating limited effectiveness in preventing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development. Two primary challenges in CHB treatment include the persistence of the minichromosome, covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) of the hepatitis B virus (HBV), and the failure of the host immune response to eliminate cccDNA. Recent findings indicate several host and HBV proteins involved in the epigenetic regulation of cccDNA, including HBV core protein (HBc) and HBV x protein (HBx). Both proteins might contribute to the stability of the cccDNA minichromosome and interact with viral and host proteins to support transcription. One potential avenue for CHB treatment involves the utilization of therapeutic vaccines. This paper explores HBV antigens suitable for epigenetic manipulation of cccDNA, elucidates their mechanisms of action, and evaluates their potential as key components of epigenetically-driven vaccines for CHB therapy. Molecular targeted agents with therapeutic vaccines offer a promising strategy for addressing CHB by targeting the virus and enhancing the host's immunological response. Despite challenges, the development of these vaccines provides new hope for CHB patients by emphasizing the need for HBV antigens that induce effective immune responses without causing T cell exhaustion.