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Submarine canyons and channels are globally important pathways for sediment, organic carbon, nutrients and pollutants to the deep sea, and they form the largest sediment accumulations on Earth. However, studying these remote submarine systems comprehensively remains a challenge. In this study, we used the only complete-coverage and repeated bathymetric surveys yet for a very large submarine system, which is the Congo Fan off West Africa. Our aim is to understand channel-modifying features such as subaqueous landslides, meander-bend evolution, knickpoints and avulsions by analyzing their morphometric characteristics. We used a new approach to identify these channel-modifying features via morphometric fingerprints, which allows a systematic and efficient search in low-resolution bathymetry data. These observations have led us to identify three morphodynamic reaches within the Congo Canyon-Channel. The upper reach of the system is characterized by landslides that can locally block the channel, storing material for extended periods and re-excavating material through a new incised channel. The middle reach of the system is dominated by the sweep and swing of meander bends, although their importance depends on the channel's age, and the time since the last up-channel avulsion. In the distal and youngest part of the system, an upstream migrating knickpoint is present, which causes multi-stage sediment transport and overspill through an underdeveloped channel with shallow depths. These findings complement previous less- detailed morphometric analyses of the Congo Canyon-Channel, offering a clearer understanding of how submarine canyon-channels can store sediment (due to channel-damming landslides, meander point bars, levee building due to overspill), re-excavate that sediment (via thalweg incision, meander propagation, knickpoint migration) and finally transport it to the deep sea. This improved understanding of the morphodynamics of the Congo Canyon- Channel may help to understand the evolution of other submarine canyon- channels, and assessment of hazards faced by seabed infrastructure such as telecommunication cables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compound clinoforms are well‐recognized in modern large muddy deltas and in some ancient deltas, but there is still a lack of understanding regarding their lithology variations and the process by which sand from the shoreline clinothem reaches the subaqueous clinothem foresets that are sometimes 100 km away. Net‐to‐gross, thickness and facies association evaluation show overall coarsening‐upward through a 191 m thick exposure of the late Pliocene Orinoco, Lower Morne L'Enfer Formation, with a distinct tripartite lithology distribution. The subaqueous clinothem records a lower, relatively muddy coarsening‐upward interval, 112 m thick, with net‐to‐gross increasing from zero to 60%. On the lower delta front, zero net sand units show graded beds of silt and mud with occasional spring–neap rhythmites, strongly suggesting gravity flows influenced by tidal currents. These foreset beds are overlain by structureless very fine sand, interbedded with deformed wavy to lenticular, grey fluid mud layers that rapidly accumulated near the subaqueous clinoform rollover point. The tidally dominated subaqueous platform (subaqueous delta topset), 1 to 4 m thick, shows zero net sand units with anomalously high mud content, >70%, due to the high near‐bed suspended sediment concentration of externally derived fluid mud that migrated littorally alongshore from the Amazon Delta. The interaction of freshwater river flood discharge with fluid‐mud banks gave rise to density stratification with fine sand hypopycnally dispersing as a turbulent layer above the denser fluid‐mud carpet. The shoreline clinothem (<8 m thick) has high net‐to‐gross, >85%, attributed to winnowing of sediment by waves and tides. Utilizing net‐to‐gross trends and facies changes provide useful criteria to identify compound clinoforms in the rock record. The Orinoco Delta deposits, however, are unusual, since fluid mud hinders sand deposition on the platform, allowing for easy identification of platform facies and a clear distinction between the subaqueous and shoreline clinothem in outcrop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Eocene Pinghu Formation in the Xihu Depression of the East China Sea Shelf preserves mixed‐process deltaic deposits and contains a large number of thin coal seams. This study improves the prediction of coal seam occurrences based on facies distribution and stratigraphic architecture models of deltaic deposits, using core and wireline log datasets. Sedimentological analysis reveals four facies associations, which represent delta plain (including distributary channels and interdistributary bays), delta front, prodelta and tidal flat. These facies associations reflect and preserve the interaction of fluvial and marine processes. Delta‐plain and delta‐front deposits record progressively greater tidal influences when traced southward. Well‐log correlations show that coal‐forming mires on the tide‐influenced lower delta plain were relatively favourable for peat accumulation because the stability of the tidal channels led to a stable platform for peat accumulation on the lower delta plain. The temporal and spatial distribution of coal seams is a function of both autogenic and allogenic responses to forcing. Increased probability of frequent changes in subsidence rates and sea‐level in an active tectonic setting and erosion by channels resulted in thin single‐layer coal seams (mostly 0.5 to 1.0 m). Autogenic processes (for example, delta growth and delta lobe switching) played a significant role in the areal distribution, lateral variation in thickness (ranging from 3 to 71 m) and large cumulative thicknesses (up to 71 m) of coal seams. A general vertical decrease in coal seam thickness likely records a cooling palaeoclimate during deposition of the Pinghu Formation. By comparing delta plain processes to favourable environments of peat accumulation in modern systems with favourable mineralogical, chemical and physical conditions, it can be concluded that: (i) relatively few and discontinuous coal seams developed on the tide‐dominated delta plain generated; (ii) laterally discontinuous and ribbon‐shaped coal seams developed in tide‐influenced deltas; whereas (iii) coal seams formed in river‐dominated deltaic environments have better lateral continuity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Neogene Orinoco Delta is one of the typical river deltas where both the records of modern and ancient tidal processes can be studied. A ~5 m.y./>10-km-thick succession on the island of Trinidad contains remnants of paleo-Orinoco deltaic deposition preserving both tide- and wave-influenced delta lobes within the same time intervals, just like the modern Orinoco Delta that has both wave-dominated and tidal-dominated lobes. The tide-influenced delta lobes and estuaries preserve some spectacular tidal bedding signals, including tidal rhythmites. The tidal record encoded within the tidal rhythmites is preserved well enough that the primary tidal constituents responsible for the tidal currents that deposited the rhythmic facies can be inferred. Lower to upper Pliocene tidal rhythmites were examined in two main paleo-Orinoco sub-environments: (1) estuarine and delta lobe deposits of Morne L'Enfer Formation at Erin Bay, and (2) abandoned tidal channels associated with tide-influenced deltafront deposits from the Telemaque Sandstone Member of the Manzanilla Formation at Matura Bay. Both wave- and river-current signals are also present in most of the study areas. Tidal constituent analysis of unusually well-preserved paleo-Orinoco tidal rhythmites reveals a hierarchy of tidal signals that include semidiurnal, diurnal, fortnightly (neap--spring), monthly (perigee--apogee), semi-yearly, and possibly seasonal and yearly cycles that span thickness intervals ranging from millimeters to meters. The tidal constituents were dominated by, in decreasing importance, M2, S2, and likely K1 rather than O1. The modern tidal data clearly show that K1 is more important in terms of tide-generating potential than O1, as was likely so in the Pliocene. In both the rock and modern records, N2 is more significant than O1, P1, and K2 in terms of tide-generating potential. The comparison between the constituent analysis of the ancient tidal record and the modern tidal measurements reveals their similarities in tidal patterns and constituent types. From this, we deduce that the tidal constituents responsible for the Pliocene Orinoco Delta tides were mixed semidiurnal tidal cycles similar to those found today in Trinidad (Atlantic type of synodically dominated) rather than the Caribbean (tropically dominated) type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]