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Introduction: Lack of physical activity (PA) is associated with obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Parenting practices influence PA in young children. However, there is little evidence available for adolescents. We examined whether parenting practices were associated with out-of-school PA (OSPA) in US adolescents. Methods: This cross-sectional 2019 study analyzed data from the 2014 FLASHE study, a web-based, quota-sampled survey of parent–adolescent dyads. Inclusion required survey completion and parents to live with their teen (ages 12–17 y old). Physically limited adolescents were excluded. Dyads were stratified by teen age. Exposures included parental modeling, monitoring, facilitation, restriction, guided choice, and pressure. The outcomes of interest were OSPA Youth Activity Profile scores. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using adjusted logistic regressions. Results: A total of 1109 dyads were included. Guided choice increased odds of OSPA for 15- to 17-year-olds (OR = 2.12; 95% CI, 1.17–3.84). Facilitation increased odds of OSPA for 12- to 14-year-olds (OR = 2.21; 95% CI, 1.13–4.33). Monitoring decreased odds of OSPA for 15- to 17-year-olds (OR = 0.34; 95% CI, 0.20–0.57) and 12- to 14-year-olds (OR = 0.45; 95% CI, 0.27–0.74). Friend support increased odds of OSPA in 15- to 17-year-olds (OR = 4.03; 95% CI, 2.29–7.08) and 12- to 14-year-olds (OR = 3.05; 95% CI 1.69–5.51). Conclusion: Future interventions should prioritize (1) shared decision making for older teens, (2) access to PA opportunities for younger adolescents, and (3) promoting peer PA and friend support for everyone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several aspects of the migratory behaviour of birds, notably timing, direction and duration, have been shown, mainly from breeding experiments, to be under genetic influence. Nevertheless, aspects of migratory behaviour can be improved by learning, either from personal experience or from other individuals. This review is concerned with social influence on different aspects of bird migration. Communal migration can provide not only the usual anti-predation and food-finding benefits, but also energy savings (resulting from particular flock structures), greater synchronization of individual journeys and improved route finding. Individuals in a group can pool their knowledge of directions and routes to mutual benefit, and if a group contains different age-groups, naïve youngsters can learn from more experienced individuals. These advantages may be one reason why many birds migrate in flocks or in more diffuse aggregations, even some species that normally live solitarily. Some species, notably swans, geese and cranes, migrate as family units within flocks, so young could learn migratory routes, stopover sites and wintering areas from their parents. And providing the two age-groups migrated together, the young of other species could learn the same details from older, more experienced individuals, whether related or not. In the daytime, some birds can be seen to migrate on their own, while others travel in groups, flocks or other looser assemblages. Night migration has been studied by radar, ceilometers and other artificial lights and by 'moon-watching', as well as by sound recording to detect flight calls. While some species travel at night in dense flocks, as in the daytime, others (including some solitary species) seem to travel in loose aggregations which may form once the birds are airborne. Calling maintains contact between individuals and may thereby provide information on optimal directions, flight altitudes and other aspects. Species vary in the extent to which they call at night, but such vocalizations increase at times of change, such as take-offs and landings, altitude changes or as birds enter mist. Many birds show specific behaviours before migration which serve to synchronize departures of those individuals which have reached an appropriate condition. Individual homing pigeons, released at a distance, can normally find their way back to their home loft, but different pigeons may develop different routes. When pairs of pigeons, which have developed different routes, are released together, they may either take an intermediate route or one pigeon may join the other regarded as 'leader'. The larger the difference in experience between two pigeons, the greater the likelihood that the more experienced bird will emerge as leader. Migration in flocks may improve the accuracy of orientation if the direction of the flock is an average of the headings of the individual flock members (the 'many wrongs' principle). This notion has been supported by experiments on homing pigeons, and also by observations of wild birds, in which single individuals or small groups showed more variation in their directions than did larger groups. In general, directional scatter decreased as group size increased. In such systems, individual birds benefit from social contact with others, but all individuals have equal influence on the resulting direction. In practice, some birds (leaders) are likely to have more influence on directions than others (experienced more than inexperienced), as shown in experiments with pigeons and tracking of wild goose families on migration. Large scale field experiments have also shown that birds can be influenced in their movements by others of their species, and that even birds from resident populations can sometimes be induced to migrate when released into areas where migrants prevail. When juveniles are released in the absence of experienced adults, they take a wider range of directions than normal, some of which take them off an optimal route. By training geese, swans or cranes to fly behind ultralight aircraft, new migration routes have been created, re-establishing migratory populations in areas from which they were eliminated in the past. Such experiments further illustrate the role of social influence on bird migratory patterns. Suggestions are made for further research aimed to fill gaps in understanding and to take forward our understanding of social influence on migratory behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dams and other in‐stream obstacles disrupt longitudinal connectivity and hinder fish from moving between habitats. Fishways and other fish passage solutions are used to pass fish over these artificial migration barriers. Fish passage functionality, however, varies greatly with fish passage design and environmental conditions and depends on fish species and characteristics. In particular, swimming performance and fish behaviour are considered key characteristics to predict fish passage performance. It is also well known, but not well quantified, that the presence of conspecifics affects fish passage behaviour. In this study, we quantified individual passage rates of PIT‐tagged gudgeons (Gobio gobio) over a scaled deep side notch weir in an hydraulic flume. We then quantified individual swimming capability (time to fatigue) and activity level (distance moved in an open field test) for the same individual fish and tested for potential effects on fish passage rate. To check for potential group effects, we then repeated the passage experiment for fish individually or in groups of five. More active fish displayed higher passage rates compared to less active fish, and fish passed the obstacle at higher rates in groups of five compared to alone. No effect of fish swimming capability on passage rates was detected. This result highlights the need to take both individual variation as well as the presence and behaviour of conspecifics into account in fish passage studies and evaluations. Doing so has the potential to improve the understanding of fish behaviour, and in the end, the design of fish passage solutions. Future studies should explore these results on free ranging fish and in relation to in‐situ fish passage solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With an increase in interactions with non-human agents, understanding and forecasting the consequences of human interactions with them have become increasingly crucial. The present study focused on a subset of non-human agents known as virtual characters. To investigate whether people respond in the same way to a virtual character as they do to a real human, we replicated a classic test of human-human social interaction, specifically, the social facilitation and inhibition effects. The theory of social facilitation/inhibition states that in the presence of others, people perform simple or learned tasks better and complex or novel tasks worse. In the present study, participants were given different tasks (letter typing, Sudoku, and maze) of varying difficulty (easy and difficult) to complete either alone, in the presence of a real person, or in the presence of a virtual character. The participants’ task performance was determined by the number of subjects completed within the specified time. The results of 60 participants demonstrated a significant improvement in the performance of easy tasks when a virtual character was present compared with performing those tasks alone, providing evidence for social facilitation effects. For the difficult tasks, task performance did not show decline in the presence of a virtual character. According to these findings, it is possible to avoid social inhibition in the presence of a virtual character. The present study will be a reference for scholars interested in further investigating how non-human agents impact social facilitation effects and implement virtual agents in educational settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sports like dancing and gymnastics are often performed in front of an audience. It is therefore an important question whether spectators help or hinder movement execution. Previous research suggests that the influence of spectators on motor performance depends on the type of task, with condition-based tasks being facilitated, and coordination-based tasks being inhibited (for a recent review, see van Meurs, Greve, & Strauss, 2022). We tested a group of female carnival dancers (N = 15, Mage = 19; age range between 15 and 35 years) over the course of a competitive season. The same dance choreography was performed at four timepoints, each time with and without spectators. Dance performances were videotaped and afterwards rated by 7 qualified raters, who were blinded concerning the experimental condition. Raters noted an increased quality of the dance with increasing practice (linear and cubic trend). Concerning social facilitation effects, dance performance was either improved (timepoint 2) or unchanged (timepoints 1, 3, and 4) in front of the audience. Our results indicate that a complex coordination task like the carnival dance may be facilitated when being watched. Future research should address whether these findings can be replicated in other aesthetic sports (like gymnastics), whether they are influenced by gender, and how individual performances influence the group outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While overt social atypicalities remain a key component of the autistic phenotype, recent reframing of autistic social motivation suggests that these atypicalities do not overlap with their actual level of social engagement. Our study aimed to investigate autistic preschoolers' visual attention toward social situations with unequal interactive load and determine the potential benefits of parallel competition, a form of lateral tutorship. The study observed 26 autistic preschoolers and 20 typically developing children. First, a gaze-contingent procedure measured visual attention toward videos of parallel competitive play, overtly cooperative play, and a non-social object. Then, a motor task and a cognitive task were conducted, both independently and with a parallel competitor to assess the effect of parallel engagement on children's performance. Eye-tracking demonstrated autistic children displayed reduced attention toward competition than typically developing children. However, behavioral data revealed the presence of a parallel competitor significantly and similarly improved performance for autistics and typically developing children. These findings suggest a dissociation between social attention and social facilitation in young autistic children, indicating that atypical visual patterns toward social situations do not necessarily preclude them from benefiting from these situations. As such, activities parallel to the child activities, or lateral tutorship, may represent an addition to traditional joint-interactive activities in early education for autistic children. Recent research suggests that we might have underestimated the social motivation of autistic individuals. Autistic children might be engaged in a social situation, even if they seem not to be attending to people in a typical way. Our study investigated how young autistic children behave in a "parallel" situation, which we call "parallel competition," where people participate in friendly contests side-by-side but without direct interaction. First, we used eye-tracking technology to observe how much autistic children pay attention to two video scenarios: one depicting parallel competition, and the other where individuals play directly with each other. The results showed that autistic children looked less toward the parallel competition video than their typically developing peers. However, when autistic children took part in parallel competitions themselves, playing physical and cognitive games against a teacher, their performance improved relative to playing individually just as much as their typically developing peers. This suggests that even though autistic children pay attention to social events differently, they can still benefit from the presence of others. These findings suggest complementing traditional cooperative activities by incorporating parallel activities into educational programs for young autistic children. By doing so, we can create more inclusive learning environments for these children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Virtual fencing is an alternative to the ubiquitously used physical fences. It uses GPS to determine the location of livestock relative to a virtual line. The system deters livestock from leaving the enclosure by using an auditory warning followed by an electric impulse during approach and crossing of the fence line. This paper assessed the social effects on learning between cattle with and without prior experience with virtual fencing through three case studies: one with a gradual and two with an instant introduction method. These were applied to assess if improvements in associative learning could be made. Due to the non-standardised experiments, it was not possible to analyse the effect across the case studies and therefore to conclude whether the number of experienced cattle or the different introduction methods influenced the inexperienced cattle. Agricultural industries rely on physical fences to manage livestock. However, these present practical, financial, and ecological challenges, which may be solved using virtual fencing. This study aimed to identify how experienced cattle through social facilitation and the introduction method influence inexperienced cattle. Based on three stocks held in Fanø, Denmark, containing 12, 17 and 13 Angus (Bos taurus), we examined the virtual fence learning in three case studies using one gradual introduction with zero experienced cattle (A) and two different instant introductions with one (B) and ten (C) experienced cattle. Gradual introduction had the virtual fence moved 20 m every other day for eleven days, and in the two instant introductions, the physical fence was removed in one day. Warnings and impulses were recorded during an 11-day learning period and a 26-day post-learning period, using the impulses per warning to quantify if the cattle adapted. Case studies A and B showed a significant reduction in the warnings and impulses, but only A showed a significant reduction in the impulses per warning when comparing the learning period to the post-learning period. Due to the non-standardised experiments, it was not possible to conclude if the number of experienced cattle or the introduction method had an effect on the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observation and replication of observed behavior are two key components to organisms surviving and flourishing. In a corresponding manner, people observe the behavior of others in organizations, replicating adaptive while avoiding detrimental behaviors. Learning by observation allows workers to develop repertoires in which adaptive behaviors are reinforced while maladaptive behaviors undergo extinction or are socially and financially punished. Moreover, observers often improve their own performance when monitoring and recording the behavior of others. However, observers also might replicate inappropriate behavior. Imitation, observational learning, observational performance, and rule-governed behavior are discussed in these contexts. Finally, being viewed by others frequently enhances worker responding and accomplishments. These behaviors occur at the individual, group, and organizational levels, allowing some workers, teams, and organizations to flourish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Alcohol consumption to facilitate social interaction is an important drinking motive. Here, we tested whether alcohol influences trust in others via modulation of oxytocin and/or androgens. We also aimed at confirming previously shown alcohol effects on positive affect and risk-taking, because of their role in facilitating social interaction. Methods: This randomized, controlled, within-subject, parallel group, alcohol-challenge experiment investigated the effects of alcohol (versus water, both mixed with orange juice) on perceived trustworthiness via salivary oxytocin (primary and secondary endpoint) as well as testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, positive affect, and risk-taking (additional endpoints). We compared 56 male participants in the alcohol condition (1.07 ± 0.18 per mille blood alcohol concentration) with 20 in the control condition. Results: The group (alcohol versus control condition) × time (before [versus during] versus after drinking) interactions were not significantly associated with perceived trustworthiness (η2 < 0.001) or oxytocin (η2 = 0.003). Bayes factors provided also substantial evidence for the absence of these effects (BF01 = 3.65; BF01 = 7.53). The group × time interactions were related to dihydrotestosterone (η2 = 0.018 with an increase in the control condition) as well as positive affect and risk-taking (η2 = 0.027 and 0.007 with increases in the alcohol condition), but not significantly to testosterone. Discussion: The results do not verify alcohol effects on perceived trustworthiness or oxytocin in male individuals. However, they indicate that alcohol (versus control) might inhibit an increase in dihydrotestosterone and confirm that alcohol amplifies positive affect and risk-taking. This provides novel mechanistic insight into social facilitation as an alcohol-drinking motive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Better (social facilitation) or worse (social inhibition) performance in a task while being observed has repeatedly been demonstrated with real human observers, yet it has not been fully tested with virtual observers. We tested this effect in a virtual environment using a visual search task to verify if the mere presence of a virtual observer would boost participants’ performance in the easy variant of the task and hinder it in the difficult one. We used electrodermal (EDA) activity measurement to test whether physiological arousal would moderate this effect. The presence of a virtual character affected search performance, which was moderated by arousal, with lower arousal leading to better performance. These results confirm that the mere presence of virtual characters can evoke a social facilitation/inhibition effect similar to that of human beings; this could confirm Zajonc’s theory and serve as encouragement for further development of VR-based training & educational tools with virtual agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main function of birdsong is to attract mates and defend territories among conspecifics, but little is known about the potential of this behavior in generating interactions among co-existing bird species that signal at the same time. Different hypotheses have been put forward to explain the mechanisms that govern signaling in crowded acoustic spaces, including competition for acoustic space, interspecific territoriality, environmental filters, and acoustic social facilitation. We tested these hypotheses in a forest bird community by studying the behavioral, acoustic, and ecological characteristics of 13 co-occurring species. We used passive recordings to assess the magnitude and the determinants of heterospecific song co-occurrence (i.e., when different species sing at the same time and place), and playback experiments to quantify the propensity of birds to sing if stimulated by heterospecific songs. Birds more frequently sang with species with dissimilar songs. In the breeding season, they also actively sang after the playback of other species, especially if these had dissimilar songs, and occasionally after non-avian unfamiliar playbacks. Heterospecific songs may trigger song utterance because they indicate a predator-free environment, or reduce predation risk through dilution effects, and these benefits may be maximized if there is little acoustic similarity. In line with ecological theory on community assembly mechanisms, these results are compatible with limiting similarity (species with similar songs sing at different times) and suggests social facilitation between phenotypically dissimilar species. These potential biotic interactions through songs may represent a mechanism that leads to bird species coexistence and are worth exploring at the community level. Significance statement: It is generally assumed that bird species avoid acoustic overlap with birds singing similar songs, but there is also evidence of active interspecific territoriality through song displays between pairs of species. Community-wide responses through songs have never been investigated in birds, and to fill this knowledge gap we performed both observations and experiments on multiple coexisting species. Birds tended to sing with species with more dissimilar songs and they were also actively stimulated to sing when the songs of species with dissimilar songs were played back. An interaction between species with dissimilar songs therefore emerged, potentially yielding anti-predatory benefits. Such active behavior, which would have gone unnoticed if observations only were performed, involves multiple species, and therefore may represent a community-wide mechanism of species coexistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a psychiatric disorder that alters both general and social cognition. However, the exact mechanisms that are altered remain to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated associative learning (AL) and facial expression recognition (FER) in the same patients, using emotional expressions and abstract images. Our main aim was to investigate how these cognitive abilities are affected by SCZ and to assess the role of mere social presence, a factor that has not been considered before. The study compared the behavioral performance of 60 treated outpatients with SCZ and 103 demographically matched healthy volunteers. In the AL task, participants had to associate abstract images or facial expressions with key presses, guided by feedback on each trial. In the FER task, they had to report whether two successively presented facial expressions were the same or different. All participants performed the two tasks under two social context conditions: alone or in the presence of a passive but attentive audience. The results showed a severe learning impairment in patients compared to controls, with a slight advantage for facial expressions compared to abstract images, and a gender-dependent effect of social presence. In contrast, facial expression recognition was partially spared in patients and facilitated by social presence. We conclude that cognitive abilities are impaired in patients with SCZ, but their investigation needs to take into account the social context in which they are assessed.

Agricultural industries rely on physical fences to manage livestock. However, these present practical, financial, and ecological challenges, which may be solved using virtual fencing. This study aimed to identify how experienced cattle through social facilitation and the introduction method influence inexperienced cattle. Based on three stocks held in Fanø, Denmark, containing 12, 17 and 13 Angus (Bos taurus), we examined the virtual fence learning in three case studies using one gradual introduction with zero experienced cattle (A) and two different instant introductions with one (B) and ten (C) experienced cattle. Gradual introduction had the virtual fence moved 20 m every other day for eleven days, and in the two instant introductions, the physical fence was removed in one day. Warnings and impulses were recorded during an 11-day learning period and a 26-day post-learning period, using the impulses per warning to quantify if the cattle adapted. Case studies A and B showed a significant reduction in the warnings and impulses, but only A showed a significant reduction in the impulses per warning when comparing the learning period to the post-learning period. Due to the non-standardised experiments, it was not possible to conclude if the number of experienced cattle or the introduction method had an effect on the results.

Background: The development of drug policies has been a major focus for policy-makers across North America in light of the ongoing public health emergency caused by the overdose crisis. In this context, the current study examined stakeholders' experiences and perceptions of power and value in a drug policy-making process in a North American city using qualitative, questionnaire, and social network data., Methods: We interviewed 18 people who participated in the development of a drug policy proposal between October 2021 and March 2022. They represented different groups and organizations, including government (n = 3), people who use drugs-led advocacy organizations (n = 5), other drug policy advocacy organizations (n = 5), research (n = 3) and police (n = 2). Most of them identified as men (n = 8) and white (n = 16), and their ages ranged between 30 and 80 years old (median = 50). Social network analysis questionnaires and semi-structured qualitative interviews were administered via Zoom. Social network data were analysed using igraph in R, and qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis. The analyses explored perceptions of value and power within a drug policy-making network., Results: The policy-making network showed that connections could be found across participants from different groups, with government officials being the most central. Qualitative data showed that inclusion in the network and centrality did not necessarily translate into feeling powerful or valued. Many participants were dissatisfied with the process despite having structurally advantageous positions or self-reporting moderately high quantitative value scores. Participants who viewed themselves as more valued acknowledged many process shortcomings, but they also saw it as more balanced or fair than those who felt undervalued., Conclusions: While participation can make stakeholders and communities feel valued and empowered, our findings highlight that inclusion, position and diversity of connections in a drug policy-making network do not, in and of itself, guarantee these outcomes. Instead, policy-makers must provide transparent terms of reference guidelines and include highly skilled facilitators in policy discussions. This is particularly important in policy processes that involve historical power imbalances in the context of a pressing public health emergency., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) are frequently used to monitor and prescribe exercise intensity. However, studies examining the shape and robustness of how feelings of effort map onto objective outputs are limited and report inconsistent results. To address this, we investigated whether (1) producing isometric forces according to RPE levels reliably leads to differences in force output, (2) if feelings of effort map linearly or non-linearly onto force output, and (3) if this mapping is robust when visual feedback and social facilitation are present. In a counterbalanced repeated measures design, N = 26 participants performed isometric handgrip contractions prescribed by ten levels of the Borg CR-10 scale. They did so either with or without the availability of concurrent visual feedback regarding their force production, and in the presence or absence of another person performing the same task simultaneously. We found that subjects reliably produced different force outputs that corresponded to each RPE level. Furthermore, concurrent visual feedback led to a linearization of force output, while in the absence of feedback, the produced forces could also be described by quadratic and cubic functions. Exploratory post-hoc analyses revealed that participants perceived moderate RPE levels to be more challenging to produce. By shedding light on the dynamic nature of the mapping between RPE and objective performance, our findings provide helpful insights regarding the utility of RPE scales. • The relationship between prescribed RPE ratings and force output is not purely linear. • Visual feedback and social facilitation influence the mapping of RPE onto force output. • Prescribing isometric handgrip contractions via the Borg CR-10 scale leads to distinguishable force outputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leader-follower behaviours have been described in cattle housed on pasture and when entering the milking parlour. To our knowledge, no study has investigated these behaviours in cattle provided free-choice access to the outdoors. This study explores whether the timing of cows exiting and entering the barn from an outdoor area is associated with the movement of their herd mates. We followed 18 lactating Holstein cows housed indoors in a freestall barn together with 18 non-experimental cows, for on average 77 d (range: 74 – 80). The 18 experimental cows were allowed free access to an outdoor open pack (sand covered with woodchips) through an automated selection gate which automatically recorded when a cow exited the barn. To enter the barn from outside, cows went through a one-way gate; time of entry was recorded from video. Cows moved in and out of the barn on average 269 times (range: 68 – 472). A Gaussian mixture model was applied to the log of the frequency distribution of time intervals between each cow and the next for each entry and exit. On the basis of where the curves intersected, we identified a threshold interval of 42 s between consecutive exits or entries to consider movements as associated. Applying this threshold, 13.8% of events were associated with the movement of another cow: 11.2% of exits and 16.4% of entries. We created a leader-follower matrix for each direction: the leader being the cow initiating the movement, and the follower the one walking through the same gate within 42 s of the leader. These association matrices were used to build weighted and directed social networks for exits and entries; we found a moderate positive correlation between the networks (R QAP = 0.69, p < 0.001), meaning the patterns of association between cows observed when exiting the barn were consistent with those when they entered. Just over a third of the relations in the networks were asymmetrical; in contrast, leader-follower theory would predict that one individual within each pair would lead consistently. We identified 17 of 153 possible between-cow pairings as preferentially bonded; these pairs had a simple ratio index of association more than twice the average of all possible pairs. We conclude that some of the cow movements to and from an outdoor pack were influenced by the movements of other group members, and these associations were particularly strong between some pairs of cows. • Dairy cows vary in their use of an outdoor area when provided free-choice access • Movements in and out of the barn are influenced by those of others cows • The observed associations between cows were consistent across exits and entries • Some cows had preferred partners when moving in and out of the barn [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to Zajonc's (1965) motivation based theory, the presence of a conspecific should increase motivation and the effect of an increase in motivation should depend on the nature of the target behavior. If the target behavior is already in the animals repertoire, the presence of a conspecific should increase the target behavior. If, however, the target behavior needs to be acquired, it should retard its acquisition. There is evidence that pigeons will choose suboptimally when given a choice between a 20% chance of signaled reinforcement and a 50% chance of unsignaled reinforcement. Under these conditions, once a preference is found, Zajonc's theory suggests that the presence of a conspecific should increase suboptimal choice. However, there is also evidence that social experience by pigeons outside the experimental context reduces suboptimal choice. In the present experiment, pigeons performed this task either in the presence of a conspecific or without a conspecific present. Inconsistent with Zajonc's theory, the results indicated that pigeons that performed the task in the presence of a conspecific chose suboptimally less often than pigeons that performed the task on their own. The results suggest that the presence of a conspecific may provide an alternative source of reinforcement, thus replacing some of the effect of the conditioned stimulus provided by the signal for reinforcement. Further testing with increased experimental sample size is recommended to confirm these preliminary findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we conducted a meta-analytic review to examine the impact of social presence on individuals’ performance on the Stroop task, shedding light on the cognitive processes underlying social facilitation. We followed PRISMA guidelines to identify and include 33 relevant studies in a multivariate random-effects meta-analysis. Our results show that social presence reliably modulates Stroop interference (a measure of cognitive control); specifically, participants exhibit lower Stroop interference when performing the task in the presence of others compared to performing it in isolation. We also found that the strength of the effect varies depending on the type of social presence: it is stronger with an attentive audience compared to an inattentive one, and null with an evaluative audience. Additionally, different features of the Stroop task itself moderate the effect; the effect is stronger for the classic version of the task compared to the semantic version, and for experiments that use mixed within-block trials compared to those with homogenous blocks. We also observed a negative relationship between the number of trials and the magnitude of the effect. Overall, these findings provide insights into the mechanisms by which the presence of others affects performance on the Stroop task, and how they align with social facilitation theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]