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The imagination effect occurs when learners who imagine a procedure perform better on a subsequent test than learners who study it. The present study explored whether this effect is restricted to short-term learning or whether it also applies when learning is tested after a delay. Forty novices and forty experts learned about a basketball game system and were instructed to either listen and memorize (no-imagination condition) or imagine and memorize (imagination condition) the tactical instructions given orally. The results indicated that experts who imagined the material performed better in both immediate and delayed knowledge tests than experts who simply studied the same material, indicating a robust effect of the imagination in experts. However, the results showed that novices performed well in the immediate knowledge test under the no-imagination condition, but this effect was reversed in the delayed knowledge test, making imagination more beneficial. These findings indicate that the effectiveness of imagination over time depends on the level of expertise of the players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mechanism through which emotional states impact learning is not yet fully understood. Through the lens of cognitive load theory, this study examines the relationship between emotional valence and learning during an algebra-based mathematics task and explores cognitive load as a potential mechanism through which emotions impact learning. Using structural equation modelling and path analysis of Australian Year 7 and 8 Secondary School students completing an algebraic learning task, we test a hypothesised model whereby extraneous cognitive load mediates the relationship between positive emotions, painful emotions, and learning. This model was tested against an alternative model with emotions mediating the relationship between extraneous cognitive load and learning. Results demonstrate that extraneous cognitive load mediates the relationship between painful emotions and learning. Alternatively, positive emotions were related to learning but not mediated by extraneous cognitive load. Implications of these findings for teachers and educators are also discussed. • Individual differences in students' emotional states can influence their learning. • Extraneous cognitive load is an intervening variable between painful emotions and learning. • Painful emotions may hinder learning by impeding students' ability to manage extraneous cognitive load. • Positive emotions directly relate to learning, but this path is not mediated by extraneous cognitive load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]