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Despite the start of a new year, a lot of business problems haven't changed. When 2022 was winding down, a government report on workplace issues ended the year with a [...]

Conditional cash transfer programs (CCTs) are increasingly common in Latin American countries and have become the main strategy for combating poverty and social inequality. Among many, noteworthy programs include Progresa-Oportunidades, later renamed Prospera, in Mexico in 1997; Programa Familias en Accion in Colombia; Chile Solidario in Chile in 2002; and Bolsa Familia Program in Brazil in 2003. The central feature of the Bolsa Familia Program (BFP) was that the receipt of monetary benefits by families was tied to the fulfillment of certain conditions, or conditionalities, involving healthcare and education for children and adolescents. The purpose of this design was, in the short term, to combat the negative effects of poverty on family well-being through the transfer of monetary resources, and in the long term, through the requirement of conditionalities, to break the poverty trap caused, in large part, by intergenerational transmission of income and education. The literature on conditional cash transfers has largely focused on entry conditions, paying less attention to exit conditions. This study aims to explore the trajectory of participant families in the Bolsa Familia Program, using information obtained from the cohort of individuals born in the city of Pelotas in 2004. The research focuses on the socioeconomic characteristics of families at the time of their child's birth in 2004 and the follow-up conducted in 2015. Survival analysis models are used to analyze the probability of exiting the program. The results reported by the survival analysis, Kaplan-Meier method, indicate that a BRL 1.00 (US$ 0.30) increase in income reduces, on average, the likelihood of successful departure from the BFP beneficiary family by 1%. Conversely, exercises conducted by family groups indicate that for families receiving benefits above the average, BRL 141.00 (US$ 42.32), the mother's age and her employment status positively influence the chances of leaving the program. Overall, the results demonstrate that the values of the benefits received are subject to decreasing returns. For families receiving benefits below the average, a one-unit increase in the amount received reduces the probability of exiting the program by an average of 1%. Regarding successful exits, it was observed that having a white father increases the chances by 40%, and if the father is employed, it increases the likelihood of successfully exiting the program by 48%. These results indicate that the successful exit of families from the program is primarily associated with parental characteristics. JEL Classifications: H75, I32, I38, P46 Keywords: Exit Strategies, Bolsa Familia Program, Conditionalities, Cash Transfer Program., INTRODUCTION Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs are increasingly prevalent in Latin American countries and have become the primary strategy for addressing poverty and social inequality. Notable programs include Progresa-Oportunidades, later [...]

This study aims to comprehensively examine the determinants of household poverty in Brazil, placing a specific emphasis on the heads of households as the primary unit of analysis. Household poverty is a critical and multifaceted issue in developing countries, a reality that holds true for Brazil as well. Understanding the intricate web of factors that contribute to household poverty is of paramount importance to policymakers, researchers, and advocates dedicated to poverty alleviation and socioeconomic development. Household poverty remains a persistent challenge in Brazil, with far-reaching social and economic consequences. To address this issue effectively, it is essential to identify the factors that contribute to poverty among households, particularly those led by individuals who are the primary income earners. These households often face unique economic and social challenges that demand targeted interventions. To analyze household poverty determinants, this study utilizes data from the 'Pesquisa Nacional por Amostras de Domicilios Continua' (Continuous National Household Sample Survey) (PNADC). The dataset provides comprehensive information on the individual characteristics of the household head and household-level attributes, offering a nuanced view of the factors at play. A probit model is employed to estimate the probability of a household head experiencing poverty, allowing for a examination of various factors. The research findings reveal several significant determinants of household poverty in Brazil. Firstly, households led by men are found to be less likely to be in a situation of poverty, shedding light on gender-related disparities in income and opportunities. Secondly, households with heads who have attained higher levels of education exhibit a lower probability of being in poverty, underscoring the importance of education as a pathway out of poverty. Moreover, urban households are found to be less prone to poverty compared to their rural counterparts, since households led by individuals who work in agricultural-related activities are more likely to experience poverty. This emphasizes the need for targeted rural development strategies. Additionally, households located in the North and Northeast regions of Brazil face a higher likelihood of poverty, possibly due to regional economic disparities that require specific policy attention. These findings have important policy implications for poverty alleviation efforts in Brazil. Policymakers should consider targeted interventions that focus on improving access to education, particularly in regions with higher poverty rates, as education is a powerful tool for poverty reduction. Efforts to promote gender equality and enhance economic opportunities in rural areas are also essential to address the diverse causes of poverty. Additionally, regional disparities in poverty should be addressed through comprehensive regional development initiatives that take into account the unique challenges faced by different areas of the country. Our results also highlight the importance of community-specific social programs, including conditional-cash transfers and incentives for childhood education, which can play a pivotal role in breaking the cycle of poverty in Brazil's diverse communities. JEL Classifications: R58, I32 and O54 Keywords: Deprivation, Feminization of poverty, Regional development, Microdata., INTRODUCTION Poverty is a phenomenon that occurs in all societies and, as such, there is great interest in understanding it by seeking to identify the determinants that condition individuals to [...]

Exchange rate volatility is said to affect domestic investment in either direction. An increase in exchange rate volatility can affect domestic investment negatively since risks are higher, mostly due to volatile prices that are the results of exchange rate volatility. Most previous studies assumed that the response is symmetric. However, one study recently demonstrated that the effects of exchange rate volatility on domestic investment could be asymmetric. We add to this new asymmetry literature by assessing the short-run and long-run effects of exchange rate volatility on domestic investment in eight Asian countries. The linear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach of Pesaran et al. (2001) is used to estimate the symmetric effects of exchange rate volatility on investment. We then follow Shin et al.'s (2014) approach of asymmetric cointegration and error-correction modelling to estimate asymmetric effects of exchange rate volatility on investment. The advantage of using both the approaches is that the variables could be a combination of I(0) and I(1), ruling out pre-unit root testing since these are the properties of almost all macroeconomic variables. Another advantage is that both approaches yield short-run and long-run results in one step. These advanced methods are applied to data from Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. We find that when a traditional linear and symmetric ARDL investment model was estimated for each of the eight countries in our sample, exchange rate volatility had a significant short-run effects on domestic investment in six countries. The shortrun effects lasted into significant long-run effects only in the cases for Malaysia and Thailand. However, when a nonlinear model was estimated, the short-run asymmetric effects of volatility were found in all the eight countries. The short-run effects lasted into the long run only for Hong Kong, Indonesia, and Thailand. Clearly, more significant effects of exchange rate volatility were established by estimating a nonlinear model which must be attributed to the nonlinear adjustment of exchange rate volatility. These findings provide policy guidelines to investors in these countries as to how and in which direction exchange rate uncertainty will affect their investment decisions. They can then hedge against uncertain exchange rate volatility and maintain a stable investment environment. JEL Classifications: E22, F31 Keywords: Domestic investment; Exchange Rate Volatility, Asymmetry Effects, Asia, Nonlinear ARDL., INTRODUCTION Most of the studies in the literature on the effects of exchange rate volatility have concentrated on the impact of exchange rate volatility on trade flows. (1) This became [...]

Small and Medium size Enterprises (SMEs) have played critical roles in developing great economies over the years but are being stalled in African economies. Literature posits that the variation is largely due to limited finance for SMEs in Africa. SMEs in Nigeria have not performed credibly well over the years with its contribution to the GDP still below 5%. The consequences of climate change on agro-based firms further creates the need for credit to boost productivity. As relevant as this might be, existing empirical research seldom examined the effect of credit access on productivity of green SMEs in Nigeria. The emphasis on green SMEs is essential due to its sustainability attribute. It is on this premise that this study examines the extent to which green SMEs access credit and how it impacts on their productivity in rural Nigeria. The specific objectives are therefore: to identify the determinants of access to credit for green SMEs in rural Nigeria; and to establish to what extent access to credit affects capital, labor and total factor productivity of green SMEs in Rural Nigeria. The study employed nation-wide-General Household Survey (2016) data, for its analysis. A logit model and the propensity score matching model were used to ascertain the objectives. The justification of the propensity score model lies in the fact that it estimates an average treatment effect from observational data. The findings show that, sex, years of schooling, capital, collateral requirement, amount of loan experience and interest rate are significant determinants of credit access in rural Nigeria, while age and labor are not. Finally, the study shows that access to credit significantly affects labor productivity but does not significantly affect capital and total factor productivity. The study recommends that the conditions for credit to the agricultural sector should be revised to ensure that credits are robust enough to generate significant impacts on capital and total factor productivity. Also, green SMEs need to be prioritized in accessing credit to incentivize other farmers to do same. JEL Classifications: C25, D12, D24, D31, N87, Q30 Keywords: Access, Credit, Determinants, Productivity, Green, SMEs, Nigeria, INTRODUCTION The issue of low productivity in Nigeria in recent years, has increasingly raised the attention and concern of researchers and policy makers. A World Bank representative and co-author of [...]

Hunger continues to be on the increase and food crises remain a developmental challenge. The incidence of food insecurity in the country has heightened in recent years due to unprecedented natural hazards, economic shocks and climate change, which have eroded livelihoods and worsened the country's performance in food security-related indices. We therefore used the panel data from Nigeria to examine the food insecurity transition among agricultural households. The data covered four rounds. The food insecurity status of agricultural households was estimated using the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke measure. We explained the interaction among the states of food security of agricultural households across different periods using the food insecurity transition matrix. The determinants of food insecurity were explored using the dynamic probit model. The model addressed unobserved heterogeneity, state dependency, and serial correlation arising from the data and model. Findings revealed that the mean food expenditure increased across the period. Similarly, mean per capita food expenditure also increased across periods except for the 2012/2013 period where it dropped slightly. We observed a rising incidence of food insecurity across the period from 44.1% in 2010/2011 to 53.4% in 2018/2019 representing a 21.1% increase in food insecurity incidence. Widening inequality exists even among the food insecure. Our findings revealed that 87.6% of households are transitorily food insecure, 5.5% are chronically food insecure and 7% are food secured. The significant factors driving food insecurity across the period were the area of land under cultivation, the fall in the price of outputs, and the increase in the price of major food items. Coping strategies employed were eating less preferred foods, restriction in diversity of foods eaten, limiting food portions, and minimizing the frequency of meal consumption. It is therefore important that the government encourage the adoption of yield-enhancing technologies to ensure household food security. Rising prices of major food items and fall in output price gives a cause for concern over the macroeconomic environment in the country, which fuels rising food prices. Policymakers should exercise caution when implementing exchange rate policies that may affect food and output prices, given the impact they have on the livelihood and household security of smallholders. JEL Classifications: Q12, Q18 and R20 Keywords: Food insecurity, transition matrix, panel, dynamic probit, Nigeria, INTRODUCTION Agriculture remains an important sector of the Nigerian economy, a major source of livelihood for the majority of the teeming population (with a growth rate of 2.6% per year) [...]

This paper takes a closer look at the well-researched topic of the determinants of health expenditure. However, as an improvement over previous studies, the current study tested the cost disease hypothesis in the healthcare sector in sub--Saharan Africa to assess the sector's productivity. The cross-sectional units in the current study comprise forty-eight sub-Saharan African countries; spanning the period 2000 to 2020. The data was sourced from two main sources; namely, World Development Indicators and the ILOSTAT. The main variable of interest (Baumol variable) was constructed using a combination of various variables. The methodology relied on several econometric techniques i.e., fixed effect, random effects and two-stage least square estimations. The growth rate of gross fixed capital formation was used to control for the potential reverse causation between the growth rate of health expenditure per capita and the Baumol variable. Based on the empirical results from the various estimations, it appears that there is some evidence of the presence of the cost disease in the healthcare sector of sub--Saharan Africa. This effect became stronger when the endogeneity in the model was taken into consideration. However, this effect became greatly diminished after the growth rate of GDP per capita and the growth of the price level were introduced in the model. The statistical significance of the growth rate of these variables reinforces their important roles in the determination of the levels and growth in health expenditure. The confirmation of the basic Baumol model in determining the growth of health expenditure suggests that the growth of health expenditure in sub-Saharan Africa might be a result of health workers' wages outstripping productivity in the sector. This suggests that the inelastic nature of the demand for health care is the main driver of the growth of health expenditure; thus might not be reflected in improved health care. Furthermore, policymakers need to consider changes in the price level as it may deflate the real value of the budgetary amount. JEL Classifications: C12; C23; I10; O41 Keywords: Health Expenditure, Unbalanced growth, sub--Saharan Africa panel., INTRODUCTION In the discussions of the determinants of health expenditure, income is an important contributor to the levels of health expenditure (Ekpenyong, 2022). However, some underlying conditions might be driving [...]

Extant literature investigates on the determinants of NPL (non-performing loan) many a time, however, little is known on the relationship between economic uncertainty and NPL for any developing country. Historically, Bangladesh is suffering from high level of NPL in the banking sector. In addition to that, Bangladesh observes high level of macroeconomic uncertainty as characterized by high and volatile Gross Domestic Products and inflation, continuous exchange rate devaluations, and shallow financial markets. Motivated by this, we investigate the nexus between economic uncertainty and NPL for Bangladesh. Based on the data availability, we use the annual dataset covering 1990-2018. Furthermore, we use autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model considering its benefit accommodating both I(0) and I(1) variables. The empirical results show that there is positive relationship between economic uncertainty and NPL in the long run. The results are robust to the alternative measures of economic uncertainty and specifications. Consistent with the expectation, financial development carries a negative sign on the asset quality albeit the effect of economic uncertainty is actually pronounced (both the size and significance changes) in the augmented models. Key policy implication of this study is that government should formulate well anchored, rule-based policies to reduce inflation and interest related uncertainties. With a rule-based policy (for example, inflation targeting), people believe that central bank can achieve its targets. Government should adopt floating exchange rate regime that will adjust the external shocks well via exchange rates. In addition to this, government can monitor, and regulate stock market so that uncertainty in stock market is reduced. Finally, monetary and fiscal policies should be communicated well to the people. Thus, it is possible to reduce asymmetric information among the people, which may reduce economic uncertainty, and thus reduce NPL. JEL Classifications: E44, G28, E58 Keywords: Non-performing loan, economic uncertainty, Bangladesh evidence., INTRODUCTION Given the persistent and rising Non-performing loans (NPL) in Bangladesh since 1990, we are motivated to study whether economic uncertainty, as the key macroeconomic factor, lead to systematic development [...]

Official Development Assistance (ODA) remains an important tool for nurturing economic growth in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. This is evidenced by numerous studies that have investigated the ODA-growth nexus in SSA region. However the existing studies on the relationship between ODA and economic growth is subject to identification issues. More specifically, the issue of distributional heterogeneity has not been given the attention it deserves in this field. In other words, the issue of whether ODA- growth nexus differ among developing nations with different economic growth levels has not been meticulously explored. This study aims to examine the heterogeneous impact of ODA on economic growth across 24 SSA countries over a 38-year period. To achieve this, an attempt is made in this study to investigate how the effect of ODA varies along the conditional economic growth distribution by employing the Moment of Moments Quantile Regression (MM-QR) approach, an approach that is able to capture the diverse effects of ODA across different levels of growth distribution. Moreover, this study explores the role of social infrastructure and institutional quality in shaping this relationship. The results suggest that ODA has a positive impact on economic growth in the SSA region, with a larger positive impact in countries with high levels of economic growth. This finding is key as it underlines the important idea that though ODA positively influence growth, it doesn't homogeneously affect all nations; but instead, it remarkably enhance it in areas with relatively robust and healthy economic conditions. The study also finds a positive and significant relationship between social infrastructures and institutions quality and economic growth, particularly in the 50th, 75th, and 95th quantiles, thereby highlighting the fact that well-developed social infrastructures and high-quality institutions play a pivotal role in nurturing economic progress, particularly at the mid to higher percentiles of economic development. The inclusion of institutions quality and interaction terms in the model influences the effect of aid on economic growth, with ODA being effective in countries located within the 25th and 50th quantiles. The findings suggest that aid can be strategically used to stimulate economic growth in SSA countries, particularly low-income countries. JEL Classifications: F35, C1, E2 Keywords: Official Development Assistance, MM-QR, GDP, INTRODUCTION Over the past four decades, Sub-Saharan African countries have been receiving substantial amounts of foreign aid in the form of Official Development Assistance (ODA). Despite efforts to reduce poverty [...]

Youth represent a pivotal demographic and social asset for every nation, serving as a critical component for national human resource development. Strategic investment in systematic and well-planned Youth Development Training (YDT) can unlock their innate potential and equip them to navigate career challenges effectively. The Bangladesh National Cadet Corps (BNCC) offers YDT as a significant intervention for youth development, potentially fostering both individual growth and the sustainable progress of Bangladesh. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of BNCC's YDT in developing leadership qualities, personal skills, and community development attitudes through quantitative analysis. An extensive literature review was meticulously undertaken, investigating deep into existing literature to identify the research gap areas, develop hypotheses, and carefully place the relevant variables essential for the study's comprehensive analysis and interpretation. A survey instrument comprising sixteen variables was devised, employing the widely used five-point rating scale to assess participant responses. Primary data were collected from 170 male and female BNCC cadets. However, data analysis proceeded utilizing the one-sample 't-test' method. 14 out of 16 hypotheses were accepted with an admirable score. The findings of the study indicate that BNCC's YDT significantly enhances leadership qualities, particularly in command skills and self-confidence among cadets. Additionally, the YDT program demonstrates a notable impact on fostering community development attitudes among participants. However, the YDT of BNCC is relatively poor in developing creative capability and Information Technology (IT) Skills among the cadets. Based on these results, specific policy recommendations are proposed, including heightened promotion of BNCC training and social development activities to its stakeholders, the establishment of leadership development institutes and innovation clubs, a memorandum of understanding with social service agencies to facilitate social development activities, and many more to maintain the area of strength, which could also contribute to remodeling the existing theories of youth development. JEL Classifications: I 21 and M53 Keywords: Youth Development, Youth Development Program, Youth Development Training, BNCC, Cadet, Leadership Development, Personal Skill, and Attitude Development., INTRODUCTION Youths are the pillar of national prosperity and an inevitable factor in the socioeconomic development of a country. Youths preserve and protect the social traditions and national culture of [...]

The urgent imperative to confront the complex interplay between managing natural resources and fostering technological innovation, particularly in OECD countries, has become a focal point in global conversations. It is abundantly clear that critical issues such as the rampant overexploitation of our natural resources, insufficient embrace of sustainable practices, and the profound repercussions of technological advancements on our ecological footprint demand meticulous scrutiny and comprehensive action. This scrutiny is vital to guide the formulation of judicious policies and strategies capable of addressing these complex challenges. The challenges faced by OECD countries, distinguished by their advanced industrialization, and elevated standards of living, are further compounded by the depletion of natural resources resulting from extensive economic activities. The extraction and utilization of resources, encompassing water, minerals, and energy, emerge as significant contributors to ecological degradation. The heightened demand for raw materials to sustain technological industries has precipitated the overexploitation and depletion of natural resources, manifesting in activities such as mining, deforestation, and other extraction processes, leading to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss. Furthermore, the manufacturing and utilization of technology, particularly within industries heavily reliant on non-renewable energy sources, have been substantial contributors to pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The study assesses the dynamic relationship between natural resources, economic growth, and technological innovation with respect to ecological footprints. It analyses the annual data series of a panel of 20 organisation for economic cooperation and development countries using the second-generation cointegration panel and cross-sectional autoregressive distributed lag methodology. The results of the slope coefficient confirm the existence of slope heterogeneity among countries. Furthermore, it affirms the long-term relationship among variables. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of effective utilisation of resources while investing in technological innovation to attain sustainable development goals. JEL Classifications: O11; O13; Q1; Q32; Q51 Keywords: Ecological Footprint, Natural resource, Technology, CS-ARDL, OECD, INTRODUCTION Natural resources play a critical role in sustaining economic growth, while also protecting the environment. They contribute directly towards raw materials and the supply of items that are essential [...]

The Caribbean region faces a daunting challenge as it confronts the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aims to shed light on the intricate relationship between governance quality and the economic performance of Caribbean nations, especially in the context of a global health crisis. Our research method involves a panel-random effects model, which captures the effects of governance quality and the COVID-19 pandemic on economic growth. We utilize data from various Caribbean countries, considering six dimensions of governance quality, trade openness, inflation, investment, and human capital. This comprehensive approach ensures a nuanced understanding of the region's economic landscape during these turbulent times. Our findings expose a significant negative association between the various dimensions of governance and the ongoing pandemic crisis. Specifically, governance indicators such as voice and accountability, rule of law, political stability, and absence of violence, along with government effectiveness, emerge as positive catalysts for economic growth. On the contrary, the control of corruption and regulatory quality demonstrate a notable negative impact on growth. Furthermore, our research unveils that investment and human capital significantly contribute to boosting output growth in the Caribbean. Conversely, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, inflation, and trade openness is observed to be detrimental to economic growth. These findings corroborate existing empirical evidence on the governance-growth nexus, underscoring the complex interplay between governance and economic development. These results emphasize the urgency of long-term strategies to enhance governance quality in Caribbean countries. It is imperative to bolster the capacity of governments to address future epidemic episodes, recognizing the persistent threat of pandemics. Policymakers should prioritize measures that promote voice and accountability, rule of law, political stability, and government effectiveness while addressing corruption and regulatory quality issues. This research holds profound significance for both academics and policymakers, offering a pathway to stable and sustainable long-term economic growth and calling for proactive preparedness in the face of future global health challenges. It also invites further research in this critical area. JEL Classifications: F63, O10, C33, C01 Keywords: COVID-19, virus, governance quality, economic growth, Caribbean, panel-random effects model, INTRODUCTION The novel COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic has had a major impact on the economies in the Caribbean and elsewhere. This is reflected in the number of COVID-19 cases and deaths, [...]

In the presence of tenure insecurity that many women face in developing societies because of patriarchal norms, farmers may not adopt farm technologies because there is no assurance of reaping the benefits. This article examines how the risk of eviction affects women's fertilizer use and adoption of early maturing seed varieties. For the empirical analysis, I employ individual-level data that was collected from 180 women rice farmers in southwestern Nigeria with a multistage sampling technique and analyse the data with both econometric methods that address possible endogeneity issues and those that do not. I analyse the relationship between the risk of eviction and fertilizer use with the Two Stage Least Squares (2SLS) and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) methods and analyse the relationship between the risk of eviction and the adoption of early-maturing seed varieties with the Two Stage Conditional Maximum Likelihood (2SCML) and probit methods. I find women who are cultivating family-allocated, husband-allocated and purchased plots to be significantly less likely to have fears of eviction than those who are cultivating fixed-rent plots, even as the risk of eviction have different effects on fertilizer use and on the adoption of early-maturing rice varieties respectively. While it makes the women spend less on fertilizer, it makes them more likely to adopt early maturing seed varieties. These would suggest that the women are responding to the unfavourable production environment from tenure insecurity with lower investments in soil fertility and shortened time horizons towards minimizing their losses in the event of eviction. The results also suggest that the women may invest in soil fertility if the operating environment becomes more favourable with better tenure. The policy implications of the findings are thus evident. Women are evidently not averse to adopting farm technologies by default; to thus improve adoption rates of farm technologies, policymakers should adapt technologies to local socioeconomic conditions, while exploring how to make tenancy contracts and the social norms that underpin customary tenure systems more amenable to granting women tenure security. These would help protect land resources from degradation, make agricultural incomes sustainable, and facilitate socio-economic development. JEL Classifications: J16; O12; Q15 Keywords: Women, eviction, tenure security, land rights, technology adoption, Nigeria, INTRODUCTION A major channel through which land tenure security might encourage technology adoption is the assurance that it gives farmers about reaping the fruits of their investments whenever they accrue [...]

Social scientists have extensively studied the causes of good institutions, including the origins of economic freedom. Results concerning the causes of different kinds of institutions are often similar, often concluding that the geography, environment, and culture are important factors. However, a recent political economy framework suggests that certain dimensions of economic freedom, namely specific dimensions of the size of government (government consumption, transfers and subsidies, and the top marginal tax rate), differ systematically from other dimensions of liberalization. This paper explores these arguments by constructing an index of a set of consensus predictors of institutional quality: ethnic fractionalization (predicts negatively), the natural log of the population size (negatively), absolute latitude (positively), natural resource rents (negatively), the presence of the country in the Americas (negatively), British legal origins (positively), the presence of the country in Eurasia (positively), and island geography (positively). The countries with the 'best' fundamentals for institutional quality are Iceland, Ireland, Malta, Finland, and Cyprus, while the five with the 'worst' fundamentals are Angola, Nigeria, Chad, Burkina Faso, and Ghana. It then takes this index of 'fundamentals' of institutional quality and shows that, although they predict economic liberalism as a whole (as measured by the Economic Freedom of the World index) as they would predict other measures of institutional quality, they predict oppositely (i.e., corresponding to larger governments) for the dimensions of the size of government listed above. The result is congruent with the predictions of the political economy model. Additionally, this result is not contingent on the inclusion of any one of the 'fundamental' variables, although natural resource rents and absolute latitude appear to be the most important variables. Countries with considerably more economic freedom than would be predicted by their fundaments include Peru, Singapore, the United States, Chile, and Canada; should deviations from fitted values be seen as presaging future movements in institutions, these countries are the most likely to see upcoming declines. The aforementioned political economy model implies that these findings are the result of complexities involved in the interaction between state capacity and different dimensions of economic liberalization. JEL Classifications: P17, O43, and D70 Keywords: Institutional Development; Economic Freedom, INTRODUCTION There is extensive scholarship on the origins and causes of economic freedom (Lawson, Murphy & Powell 2020), one dimension of institutional quality. The broader literature on institutions often points [...]

Climate risk represents an increasingly vital issue to countries, companies, and institutional investors, making it a reality but not a distant threat to humanity. Considering the effects of climate risks on firms' financial indices and financing options, the study investigates whether climate risk is priced by the capital markets of South Africa. The study used reported carbon emissions as a measure of climate risk of 81 listed companies in the Johannesburg Stock Exchange from 2011 to 2020 to examine whether climate risk is considered and priced by the South Africa capital market. Data was sourced from DataStream database- a global financial and macroeconomic time-series database providing data on equities, stock market indices, currencies, company fundamentals, fixed income securities, and key economic indicators. We used the two-step system Generalized Method of Moments estimation technique that copes with endogeneity concerns to corroborate the effects of climate risk on cost of capital and capital structure. We find that climate risk is priced in both cost of debt capital and cost of equity capital. Specifically, we find that an increase in a firm's exposure to climate risk increases the cost associated with issuing debt and equity capital. We also find that climate risk exposure decreases the debt-equity ratio. Additionally, the study showed that firm size, leverage ratio, capitalization, profitability, and turnover affect both cost of capital and capital structure of listed firms. The study concludes that climate risk is priced in cost of financing in the capital market of South Africa. The study recommends that firms should invest in installing eco-friendly machinery that aligns with changing market expectations in order to reduce their carbon emissions. The study therefore highlights the need for companies to proactively assess and manage climate risks, incorporate climate considerations into their strategic decision-making, and enhance their resilience to climate-related challenges. JEL Classifications: C23; G10, Q50 Keywords: Climate risk, cost of capital, capital structure, capital markets, INTRODUCTION Climate risk represents an increasingly vital issue to countries, companies, and institutional investors (Ginglinger, 2020), making it a reality but not a distant threat to humanity (Hjort, 2016). Since [...]

Despite several measures adopted by the government to improve the efficiency of the manufacturing firms in Nigeria, the performance of these firms is below expectation. The poor performance of Nigerian manufacturing firms has prompted concern for Nigeria's economic prospects in the long run. This needs to be addressed because, under this scenario, most development objectives would be difficult to achieve. Therefore, there is a need for Nigerian manufacturing firms to achieve high productivity to improve their performance. This study, therefore, evaluated the level of technical efficiency and examined the determinants of technical inefficiency in Nigerian manufacturing firms. It employed panel data of fifty-five manufacturing firms quoted in the Nigeria Stock Exchange Market from 1999 to 2020. The result from the Stochastic Frontier Analysis technique showed that all inputs (capital, labor, raw materials, cost of energy and other expenses) impacted positively on firms' output at a 1% significance level. But the impact of raw material is the highest. It was also found that the mean efficiency for Nigerian manufacturing firms is 52.74%. Finally, it was revealed that the age of the firm, total assets and management efficiency are the technical inefficiency determinants in Nigerian manufacturing firms. This implies that the efficiency level of manufacturing firms in Nigeria can be improved by 47.26%. Also, manufacturing output can be enhanced by providing adequate raw materials. Furthermore, the efficiency of manufacturing firms in Nigeria is enabled by the managerial capability and asset size of the firms. The study suggested that government should give tax concessions on the purchase of raw materials (sourced domestically and externally) to encourage availability and use to optimize production. Also, manufacturing firms should encourage skill acquisition programs through various on-the-job training programs for managers and their entire workforce to boost labor productivity and performance. In addition, policies that will encourage good education system should be adopted by the government which will help the nation to produce trained and skilled labor force. Finally, manufacturing firms should mobilize more resources for the procurement, consolidation and expansion of the size of their assets using their undistributed corporate profit. Through its regulatory bodies [such as Federal Ministry of Industries, Trade and Investment, Nigeria Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Small and Medium Enterprises Development Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN)], government should enforce minimal asset requirements for each sub-sector (industry) as a basis for takeoff and subsequent renewal of licence for the manufacturing firms in Nigeria. JEL Classifications: L6, L16, N67, C49 Keywords: firm performance, efficiency analysis, manufacturing firms, Nigeria, INTRODUCTION Efficiency analysis is considered an important measure of firms' performance (Farrell 1957; Machmud et al. 2018). Productive efficiency is closely linked with performance, as both describe how successful an [...]

Despite significant improvements in consumers' food safety awareness, the literature provides little or no evidence of the impact of food safety awareness on the quantity of fluid milk consumers purchased. This is especially true for India's consumers, where the economy is changing rapidly regarding food marketing, incomes, urbanization, and increased demand for food safety. The study is based on primary data from a survey of consumers from urban and peri-urban districts in India. The survey collected information on socioeconomic characteristics, dairy consumption, purchasing patterns, and food safety awareness. This study first creates a food safety awareness (FSA) index to measure consumers' awareness of food safety attitudes and perceptions. It investigates the factors affecting consumers' food safety awareness and FSA's impact on fluid milk demand. The study uses a newly developed impact evaluation method, continuous treatment matching estimation, and dose-response functions (DRFs) to assess the impact of FSA on consumers' fluid milk purchases. Findings show that educational attainment, sources of information on food safety, age, and gender of the head of the household significantly influenced consumers' food safety awareness. Further, the study finds that food safety awareness positively impacts the demand for fluid milk. After controlling for milk prices and family income, Indian consumers aware of and adopt seven or more food safety habits or practices are likely to demand more fluid milk. Results are robust to specifications, income levels, and the location of households. The link between food safety awareness and the quantity of milk purchased implies a latent consumer demand for food safety. Any consumer awareness programs and policies supporting milk and its products' hygienic production will likely increase demand for milk and dairy products. At a policy level, credible systems can be put in place for food certification and labeling, which enhance the availability of safe and hygienic food. JEL Classifications: Q12, Q13, D10 and D12 Keywords: Food safety, consumer awareness, milk demand, milk quantity, dose-response function, generalized propensity score, continuous treatment approach, INTRODUCTION The importance of food safety and food quality measures has increased recently, especially after economic liberalization (Frohberg, Grote; Winter 2006; Jongwanich 2009). Food quality and safety have been at [...]

It is widely held that smart contracts on a blockchain possess several unique properties, including immutability, disintermediation, and enhanced security, that can be advantageous to organizations. In particular, having these properties can enable smart contracts to benefit human resources departments in a number of ways, including applicant verification, tracking employee skills and tasks, and facilitating compensation. However, it is also reported that effectively implementing smart contracts involves a number of challenges to HR managers. To address these challenges, it would be valuable to establish criteria to help HR managers employ smart contracts successfully. The purpose of this paper is to develop a set of such criteria. The paper first provides an overview of the nature of blockchain and smart contracts and then, based on a review of relevant literature, describes how implementation of blockchain-enabled smart contracts in an HR department may benefit an organization by producing transaction cost savings through expediting processes, enhancing security, and reducing intermediaries. The paper then focuses on various challenges that have been identified in the literature to the successful use of smart contracts. These include issues regarding smart contract integrity, immutability, and security, as well as potential problems associated with a variety of legal issues. Synthesizing this information, the paper develops a set of best practice guidelines to help HR managers determine whether and how to employ smart contracts successfully for HR-related processes. The guidelines emphasize the importance of initial understanding and testing of planned smart contracts, protecting security by ensuring that only permissioned people can access smart contract data, and guaranteeing the integrity of smart contracts by paying very close attention to the translation of natural to programming language and establishing robust reviews of programmed contracts. Policy implications of the guidelines include the importance of HR departments ensuring that all employees who are involved in implementing the technology have a good understanding of the nature and capabilities of smart contracts, that robust methods be implemented to guarantee that the contracts are correctly programmed, and that HR managers keep abreast of legislative environment related to legal issues that may affect their department's use of smart contracts. JEL classifications: M12, M5, O33, L20 Keywords: Smart Contract, HRM, Blockchain technology, INTRODUCTION Utilizing smart contracts on a blockchain can improve processes common to human resource management (HRM), including refining applicant verification; accurately and securely tracking individual employees' skills, talents, and tasks; [...]

Existing literature on health inequalities often overlooks the nuanced dynamics, particularly among vulnerable children with chronic diseases and disabilities and fails to consider regional disparities within countries like South Africa. This paper asserts the necessity for a more granular analysis in South Africa, recognizing the varied health outcomes for children across different economic segments and geographical settings. Specifically, the health trajectories for children differ markedly between rural formal areas, regions under traditional authorities, formal urban areas, and informal urban settlements. Addressing the generalizations common in prior research, this study takes a precise, regionally focused approach to socio-economic-driven disparities in chronic illness or disability. It distinguishes between rural formal areas, traditional authority areas, formal urban areas, and informal urban areas, unveiling the intricate layers of health disparities. Using data from the National Income Dynamics Study, concentration indices, and the Oaxaca-Blinder Decomposition method, the paper analyzed health inequality trends from 2008 to 2017. The results uncover significant inequalities, with alarming trends, particularly among children with chronic illnesses and disabilities in traditional authority regions and informal urban environments. The paper's evidence shows that rural formal areas have experienced a decline in health disparities as opposed to the deepening divide in traditional authority-led regions. The urban analysis reveals a split: while formal urban settings often favour the wealthier, informal urban areas indicate a shift towards lower socioeconomic brackets. The decomposition analysis highlights the evolving socioeconomic elements influencing each region over time. These insights emphasize the urgent necessity for geographically tailored policy interventions. By understanding the distinct socioeconomic landscapes across various regions, we can formulate policies that resonate with each area's specific realities and challenges. Such targeted strategies are essential in reducing health inequalities and enhancing the life quality of children with chronic health conditions and disabilities, playing a critical role in South Africa's journey toward comprehensive health equity. JEL Classification: I14 Keywords: Socioeconomic disparities, Chronic illness, Disability, South African children, Urban and rural variations, Health inequality, INTRODUCTION Globally, persistent health concerns and disabilities, including HIV and AIDS, respiratory ailments, undernourishment, and mental health issues, present considerable public health obstacles for children. A striking United Nations Children's [...]

Since early years, humans are migrating to ensure their survival or to improve their socio-economic position in society. In Pakistan, internal migration has not been given proper attention in policy making. Consequently, government is facing problems in managing the challenges and opportunities posed by internal migration. The present study attempted to analyse socio-economic factors that play crucial role in a household's decision to migrate internally by using data of Labour Force Survey 2020-21. In the questionnaire of labour force survey, there is a specific section related to migration. The migration is defined as 'households that has moved from one district to another district or to different country', it excludes the migration within district. The logit regression has been used to estimate the model. It has been found that more educated people particularly having professional and technical education tends to migrate. The internal migration increases with age, but after certain level it tends to start declining. It has also concluded that employment in public sector (due to job security or provision of housing facilities) motivate people to internally migrate. People belonging to middle income families are more likely to migrate in comparison to rich or very poor. Study confirms that search of better job opportunities and family compulsions are major factors in internal voluntary migration. However, law and order situations emerge as a significant factor in forced migration. As the internal migration are much higher than international migration so there is need that role of internal migration may be recognised in reducing poverty, employment and socio-economic development. Unfortunately, there exists lack of policy on internal labour flows. Most the labour force is not even registered at migration destinations. It is very crucial to calculate value of domestic remittances. It will be helpful in devising the policy to improve the status of internal migrants by providing them targeted technical and vocational education training so that they can get better job opportunities in destination places. JEL Classifications: R23, I23, E24 Keywords: Internal Migration, Education, Employment, INTRODUCTION Since early years of human settlement, they have been migrating in search of food, shelter, to escape impacts of changing climate and due to overpopulation in a particular area. [...]

Despite innumerable government policies to reduce youth unemployment in Sub-Saharan Africa, the problem persists. This study examines the extent to which the hysteresis effect exists in the youth unemployment rate in Sub-Saharan African countries during the period 1991 to 2021, disaggregated according to territorial delineation, income, and gender. First, we employ the univariate and panel unit root tests including the Augmented-Dickey-Fuller, Phillips-Perron, the Dickey-Fuller-Generalized Least Square by Elliott, Rothenberg, and Stock (1996), the ADFmax by Leybourne (1995), and the Kwiatkowski, et al. (1992) test, to enable comparison with previous studies. The Pesaran's (2007), test is then applied to account for cross-sectional dependence. Finally, the Zivot--Andrews single structural break by Zivot and Andrews (1992), Clemente--Montane--Reyes two structural breaks unit root tests by Clemente, Montanes, and Reyes (1998), as well as the Karavias-Tzavalis panel unit root test with structural breaks by Karavias and Tzavalis (2014) are employed. The univariate unit root tests generally support the hysteresis hypothesis (within a band of 60% to 97%) for almost all countries, and sub-regions in SSA. However, accounting for structural breaks, the hysteresis effect in total youth unemployment is only visible in 19 countries (40%), with evidence of gender disparities pointing to the hysteresis effect in females only in 16 countries (34%), and, in males only in 10 countries (21.3%). The lower-middle-income countries reject the natural rate hypothesis in total and both male and female youth unemployment rates. While only male youths suffer from the hysteresis in low-income countries, the total youth in upper-middle-income countries shares this effect. Accounting for cross-section dependence alters the finding of the hysteresis effect only in males in Southern Africa and upper-middle-income countries. A one-size-fits-all policy may not work. Instead, we recommend an integral approach aimed at the creation of employment opportunities for youth and females, including but not limited to diversification of economic activities in rural areas to reduce urbanization, skills training, political and economic stability, cultural transformation to remove unnecessary gender-related employment discrimination, as well as improved economic integration policies. For countries found to exhibit the natural rate hypothesis, it may not be necessary to engage in costly policies to return the youth unemployment rate to equilibrium since the shock is only temporary. JEL Classifications: E20, E24, J60, N17, R10, R23 Keywords: Structural break, Hysteresis, Unit root, Cross-section dependence, Youth unemployment rate, SSA., INTRODUCTION Persistent youth unemployment has unquestionably proved to be one of the biggest threats to many developing economies. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in particular has suffered enormously from several labor market [...]

Poverty remains a serious problem in Nigeria; women are among those mostly affected and are often deprived in many ways. This paper uses the multidimensional approach to examine poverty levels among women in Ibadan South West Local Government Area, Oyo State. Primary data was obtained from a sample of 393 women across the population density areas on socio-economic characteristics and poverty indicators (health, education and standard of living). The Alkire-Foster multidimensional approach was used to estimate the multidimensional poverty index (MPI) for the sampled women. The weights assigned to these poverty dimensions were generated using the multiple correspondence analysis. The MPI for each woman were categorized as abject poor (deprived in at least two dimensions), moderate poor (deprived in one dimension) and non-poor (not deprived in any dimension). The mean age of the women was 30.8[+ or -]6.7 years. One-third of the respondents were mostly artisans (30.0%) and traders (26.5%), and 52.2% had completed secondary education. About 23.0% of women were deprived in education, 61.0% in health and 70.4% in standard of living. Based on location, the study indicated that the women in the medium and high density areas are mostly deprived in the different dimensions of poverty. When the poverty cut off K= 1, poverty incidence is 94% and 51.7% of the women were multidimensional poor as against 28% poverty incidence and 19.6% poor women when k=3 using the Alkire-Foster Multidimensional methodology. This implies that when women are deprived in at least one dimension; 51.7% are multidimensional poor. More than half of the respondents (51.0%) were categorized as moderately poor, 26.0% were abject poor while 23.2% were non-poor. This study revealed high poverty levels among women in Ibadan South West Local Government Area. Deprivation in standard of living and health in the three areas could be improved upon through the concerted effort of the government with appropriate ministries by initiating more productive and empowerment programs to improve their purchasing power and disseminating educative information that will improve their nutritional status through health talks to reduce the level of multidimensional poverty in urban locations respectively. JEL Classifications: D33, J16, N37 Keywords: Multidimensional poverty, women, Alkire and Foster, INTRODUCTION Poverty refers to an undesirable state which endangers life, and considering its universal occurrence, it is referred as the principal developmental challenge of many nations across the globe over [...]

Countries devote a lot of time and effort to develop economically, but they nevertheless struggle to attain that growth consistently. Research into economic growth should have provided some guidance as to which actions these countries should adopt, but multiple studies using different methods and datasets generally have led to an array of outcomes that contradict one another. However, Granger causality analysis can provide better insight into the relationship between some key variables and economic growth to give these countries more direction. Granger causality results establish a stronger connection between variables, even though they do not depict true causation. We therefore use a Vector Auto Regression method with Generalized Method of Moments estimation and then Granger-causality to discover how commonly used variables in the literature individually impact economic growth and in what way for a selection of OECD and non-OECD countries. We choose government expenditure, foreign direct investment (FDI), education (as a proxy for human capital), population growth, urbanization, and trade openness as our variables of interest. We also utilize updated datasets from the World Development Indicators (WDI) ranging from the years 2000-2016, based on the availability of the data. We find that FDI and population growth do Granger-cause economic development for OECD countries but that government expenditures, education, urbanization, and trade openness do not show such Granger causality. However economic growth Granger-causes government expenditures, FDI, and education for these OECD countries. For the non-OECD countries, we find that FDI, population growth, and trade openness Granger-cause growth but Granger causality does not occur from government expenditure, education, and urbanization to economic development. Yet similar to the OECD countries, economic growth does Granger-cause FDI and trade openness for the non-OECD countries as well. The overall results indicate that all countries should encourage the expansion of foreign direct investment to grow their economy, which then in turn can lead to additional investment as well as more resources available for the country as a whole. We also suggest further studies should focus on the economic development of individual countries rather than regions, particularly in terms of how technology can drive growth and impact these other variables. JEL Classifications: H11, O1 Keywords: economic growth, Granger causality, OECD, non-OECD, INTRODUCTION Economic growth provides a multitude of benefits. It helps countries to exploit their resources more efficiently. It creates a higher standard of living for citizens even as it increases [...]

Capital structure is one of the crucial decisions managers must make that can affect a firm's short-term and long-term value maximization prospects. Though extant studies have shown capital structure significantly affects profits, researchers have struggled to find an optimal mix of capital structure ideal for value maximization due to the influence of macro and micro factors. There is therefore the need for this to be properly studied contextually. Building on the Pecking Order Theory, this study examines the capital structure effects on profitability from a short-term, long-term, and total debt financing perspective on listed Ghanaian firms between 2003 and 2013. An unbalanced panel data of 23 listed manufacturing and service firms that are listed on the Ghanaian Stock Exchange are subjected to robust maximum likelihood heteroskedastic linear estimation models. Three main regressions that are run explain the short-term debt, long-term debt and total debt effect on firm profitability. The results show that short-term debt exhibits a positive effect on return on equity (ROE), whilst the relationship reverses for long-term debt, indicating that short-term financing was beneficial to firms rather than long-term financing. Also, total debt exhibited a negative and non-significant effect on return on equity. The author also found that firm liquidity exhibited a more pronounced positive effect on profitability for firms with short-term debt than long-term debt. Financial risk negatively affected the returns of only firms with short-term debt. Market share had a pronounced positive effect on ROE across firms whilst firm age exhibited a less pronounced positive effect on firm profits. Firm size and growth had increasing profit effects but was not significant in the dataset. Financial risk also negatively affected profits, but this was only significant in firms with short-term debt structures. This study finds that managers need to adopt more short-term debt financing rather than long-term financing as the former leads to more profits. There is a need for policymakers to develop long-term debt financing structures to compete in the Ghanaian debt market. It is also recommended that managers exercise due care when supplementing equity capital with debt. JEL Classifications: L11, L22, L25 and G32 Keywords: Capital Structure; Profitability; Firm Performance; Ghana, INTRODUCTION Globalization and financial liberalization continue to expand investment and financing options available for firms, businesses, and institutions (Shim 2022; Begenau & Salomao 2019). With capital markets expanding, firms have [...]

In Bangladesh Social Safety Net (SSN) interventions are intended to achieve specific goals, e.g., reduction in poverty, decrease in early school dropout, and nutrition supplementation. This study investigates the effectiveness of SSN participation on less explored goals of child labor reduction and school retention in Bangladesh. Empirical evidence is provided to evaluate the success of existing programs to combat child labor and early school dropout. This study utilizes the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES), 2016 of Bangladesh. We employ the Propensity Score Matching (PSM) framework to show the causal relationship between SSN participation and its impact on the use of child labor and school retention. Given the nature and availability of data, the matching method provides us an estimate of the impact of SSN based on a quasi-experimental setting. We estimate counterfactuals based on observed characteristics of the household that affect both SSN participation and our outcome variables. Our results suggest that households that receive SSN tend to employ less child labor domestic or paid compared to their counterparts. Our Propensity Score Matching (PSM) results show that SSN participation reduces child labor prevalence in Bangladesh by 2.4% to 2.9%. This is an indication that families essentially substitute SSN income with child labor earnings. Thus, SSN programs in Bangladesh are effective in reducing child labor though the magnitude is not overwhelming. On the contrary, our results show that children from SSN-participating families have a higher incidence of early school dropout. This may be due to inefficiency or poorly designed programs that effectively keep the children in school. We estimate early school dropout is higher by 3.6% to 6.6% for households that receive SSN compared to the control group. Our findings are important for policymakers to redesign the programs that retain children in school. We suggest targeted interventions that will help to keep these children in school, which is conducive to human capital accrual and increasing lifetime earnings. Additionally, our insights will assist policymakers in rethinking SSN coverage, efficient selection of beneficiaries, and initiation of the correct intervention. JEL Classifications: I38, J13, J22 and P46 Keywords: Social Safety Net (SSN), Child Labor, School Dropout, Bangladesh, Propensity Score Matching (PSM), Program Evaluation, INTRODUCTION Social Safety Net (SSN) programs in less-developed countries such as Bangladesh serve various purposes, including boosting health, providing education, and securing goods. SSN programs are funded by governments or [...]

The labor force constitutes a paramount factor of production in the realm of business operations. In the past, China's abundant labor force significantly boosted productivity for firms. However, as the demographic dividend gradually wanes, concerns have arisen regarding a scarcity of labor force, exacerbating worries about rising labor costs. Therefore, focusing on enhancing firms' labor investment efficiency becomes pivotal. Using a sample of A-stock listed firms in China from 2013 to 2020, we examine the impact of customer concentration on the labor investment efficiency of supplier firms. Prior literature provides mixed results regarding the effect of concentrated customers. They can act as a governance mechanism for reducing agency problems, thus, increasing investment efficiency. Conversely, agency problems are aggravated in suppliers with concentrated customers, consequently, reducing investment efficiency. Our results suggest that customer concentration reduces labor investment efficiency, and this effect is more pronounced when customers possess high bargaining power. Additionally, the mechanism analysis reveal that customer concentration leads to less accurate information disclosure, higher operating risk, and an incentive to 'empire building', reducing labor investment efficiency. The cross-sectional analysis reveals that customer concentration results in both over- and under-investment in labor, thereby reducing investment efficiency. In addition, we employ augmented models to rule out the possibility of a U-shaped relationship between customer concentration and labor investment efficiency. Furthermore, we adopt the instrumental variables approach as well as a two-stage regression model to address potential endogeneity concerns and mitigate the omitted variable concern. Our results hold after the robustness tests and endogeneity tests. The findings of this paper imply that firms should strategically diversify their customer bases, thereby reducing their reliance on a few large customers. Simultaneously, governments should actively encourage firms to broaden their customer base. It can help enhance labor investment efficiency by spreading the risks associated with customer concentration. Moreover, it is crucial to acknowledge that substantial customer bargaining power can negatively impact supplier firms. Thus, policymakers should promote antitrust regulations and fair trade practices to mitigate the high bargaining power of large customers. JEL Classifications: G31, E22, J20 Keywords: Customer concentration, Agency problems, Business risk, Labor investment efficiency, INTRODUCTION Labor constitutes a fundamental resource for firms' production and operational activities, holding significant implications for both macroeconomic growth and the competitiveness of micro-firms (Atanassov and Kim, 2009; Jung et [...]