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In order to implement the Indian Governments educational and service program in family planning nearly 125000 people are needed. Basic training of family planning health workers should be at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. Areas where training can begin are the medical school nurse training programs and Lady health visitor and auxilliary nurse-midwife training programs. Since most of the Lady health visitors and auxilliary nurse-midwives enter the Mother and Child Health-Family Planning centers the training of these personnel should be increased along with increasing the curriculum in family planning. Extension education can provide a means for the direct teaching and motivation of individuals and small groups. These people can then motivate people in other areas. The encouragement and use of innovation in training can encourage the success of the family planning programs.

A report of a two-part study involving an in-service instructional program designed to develop lesson plans for the teaching of critical thinking and the experimental evaluation of the teaching units produced.

In the two preceding articles of this series, I have discussed certain fallacies involved in high-school procedure and have attempted to show how they result in a kind of half-learning or no-learning which is cumulative in effect and which probably has disastrous influence upon the character of society in an age of universal education. In the January number of the School Review I discussed the fallacy of lesson-learning and exhibited some evidence tending to show that there is little or no necessary relation between the learning of a lesson and the achievement for which that lesson or series of lessons is supposed to stand. I characterized lessongiving as indirect teaching. I shall set forth in this article in substance what I mean by direct teaching. In the February number I pointed out the fallacies involved in current marking, grading, and promotion; in the misuse of the normal distribution surface in school administration; in the abuse of intelligence or mentality ratings; and in ground-to-be-covered and time-to-be-spent and method-to-be-used. I attempted to show how the whole congeries of fallacies, the legitimate outcome of the graded system of school government and administration, has caught us in such a net that we cannot teach thoroughly if we would.

This article outlines briefly some of the uses made of television in the University of Bath and goes on to discuss its use in the analysis and design stage of course planning‐‐rather than detailing direct teaching applications. Television is only one‐‐albeit an expensive one‐‐of the teaching/learning aids available in the University's Educational Services. It has always been argued by the Service that any particular aid should be used if, and only if, there is sound argument in favour of it. If it is reasonable to argue that aids should match specific teaching or learning needs of each part of a program or module then it is also reasonable to argue that the most appropriate media should be used to analyse the teaching or learning requirements underlying such a program. It could be that the use, for instance, of television in the analysis and design stage may establish that television should not be used in the final production. Television or not television is the problem discussed in this article.

It is argued that auditory and audio‐visual materials will play an increasing part in programmed instruction in the future. In some areas, especially in the teaching of reading and languages, and in the direct teaching of people who cannot read, audiovisual programs are practically a necessity. Work already carried out in these areas is surveyed. But if psychological evidence to the effect that the use of both audio and visual modalities can produce more effective teaching than the use of either modality alone is correct, then a general use of audio‐visual programs emerges. In any case, an advantage might be expected for audio programs in a number of specific areas, such as in some industrial training situations, and when programs are used in a group situation. There may also be a future for audio‐visual programs presented via the mass media of radio and television. Research related to all these possible uses of audio‐visual programs is surveyed. An audio‐visual teaching system developed at Educa...

THERE HAS BEEN A SIGNIFICANT lack of fruitful interaction between education and the developing science of learning. Experimental psychologists concerned with learning theory and educational psychologists concerned with instructional techniques and devices have been trained in different academic worlds and in different universes of discourse. One result is the uneasy feeling that educational psychology and the instructional methodologies it generates have not been closely nurtured by a basic mother science. Indeed, it has been a rarity to find a single individual actively concerned both with the development of the basic science of learning and with its technological applications to educational practice. Increasingly, however, current activities indicate that more experimental psychologists who are learning-theory oriented are working on education and training problems. The general question posed by this movement concerns the nature of an applied psychology of learning and the development of a technology of instruction. Applied research can be defined as research that is oriented toward the development and application of a practical technology. It is a meeting ground where applied and basic endeavors mingle, and where solutions to both theoretical and practical issues are attempted, often in the same experimental program. It appears

The study was designed to determine whether an individual's ability to perceive affect in other persons could be ameliorated solely as a result of the individual's having acquired knowledge and understanding of certain terms and concepts through a direct teaching approach. Subjects were randomly divided into two groups. During a 2-week treatment period, one group of 102 subjects received only programmed self-instructional material dealing with terms and concepts pertaining to interpersonal perception. The second group of 119 subjects attended a required educational psychology course during this period but did not have access to the programmed material. Following the treatment period, all subjects were tested for accuracy of interpersonal perception. The difference between groups with respect to scores on the perception measure was significant and favored the group receiving the programmed instruction. The counselor's ability to perceive accurately the meaning and feelings of the client is accepted as an important ingredient of psychotherapy (Sarbin, Taft, & Bailey

If, as a few ultra-progressive educators seem to imply, education were solely discovery, then teachers would no longer be necessary. Usually these theorizers are thinking of classroom situations in which the process of discovery resembles an Easter-egg hunt or the piecing together of a jigsaw puzzle: the participants make discoveries that could hardly have come about without previous "structuring" of the situation. The teacher activity which is involved in setting up good learning situations is as truly a form of instruction as is direct teaching from lesson plans. Simply turning children loose without direction and expecting each of them to discover for himself important relationships, such as the fact that the first letter of the first word in every sentence is capitalized, would probably prove decidedly ineffective and wasteful of time. If the inductive method were utilized, presenting reading material adapted to the task at hand (that is, free from pr p r names within sentences and containing as terminal marks of puncuation, say, only periods) might hasten the process without sacrificing desirable pupil participation.

IN THE development of early poultry curriculums poultry husbandry and poultry management were, in classroom practice, considered to be synonymous. However, as the industry developed and poultry teaching became more sophisticated, poultry management, while including husbandry, has come to be recognized as an area of study involving many disciplines. Elementary poultry management courses place increased emphasis on the biology of the fowl. The more advanced management courses emphasize the application of economic and business principles. Husbandry may have special application in either course, or, as is sometimes done, the teaching of husbandry may be incorporated within the more advanced nutrition, physiology, etc. courses. Courses in advanced poultry management have involved less direct teaching of husbandry as teachers sought to include principles of management rather than special practices. However, the introduction of principles into the classroom has for many reasons, been fragmented and slow. Textbooks on advanced poultry management which incorporated…

effective than a silent film in conveying exact information. He also found that educational films can be used effectively as a means of increasing and arousing students' interests. In this respect sound films are apparently more valuable than silent films. Einbecker's3 experiment showed that verbal accompani ments increase the comprehension over that secured from the film without caption or com ment. He also found that silent motion pic tures accompanied by the teacher's comments are superior to both the talking picture and the silent picture with respect to the learning of new technical words or unfamiliar names. Hansen4 found that verbal explanation ac companying an educational talking picture can be presented as effectively by the class room teacher as by the medium of the re corded voice from the sound motion oicture projector. Rulon5 found that film-supple mented classroom procedure resulted in an increase of pupil learning in excess of 20 per cent, when measured in terms of permanent acquisitions. In terms of retained achieve ment measured by giving the tests three months later, the film-supplemented procedure was 38.5 per cent more efficient than the un supplemented method. The findings of West fall's6 investigation showed that explanations prepared by the teacher from material fur nished with the film, a lecture furnished with the film and read by the teacher, and the usual captions were about equal as aids to understanding the contents of the film; these three forms of verbal accompaniment were superior to long captions. A study was conducted by the writer7 at Horace Mann Junior High School, Tulsa, Oklahoma, during the school year of 1937 1938, in which he found that, for immediate recall, study sheets were superior to sound films as a method of direct teaching. In the teaching of four subjects to 140 pairs of eighth grade science pupils, the data show that for each subject the study sheets were superior to a statistically significant degree. The data secured from the tests given for delayed recall did not give statistically sig nificant evidence to indicate that either method of teaching was better.

As soon as a suitable body of words has been selected, spelling efficiency becomes, to a great degree, dependent on the method of teaching and study. Hilderbrant (6)2 says that there are probably no "born spellers" and that persons who spell well do so because they have adequately directed their word experiences or their word experiences have been well directed by a teacher. Their attention has been called early in life to the correct arrangement of letters in words, and they have had adequate practice in using these words in practical written discourse. The view has been advanced now and then, however, that children learn to spell "incidentally," that is, without specific instruction in the subject. To illustrate, a pupil who is taught to read and who, in learning to read, also learns to spell has learned spelling "incidentally." Evidence favoring "incidental" teaching of spelling rests on comparisons of results obtained under poor direct teaching and good incidental teaching in connection with reading and composition. It is not surprising that poor direct teaching does not yield good results. However, when incidental teaching is matched against good direct teaching, the results are uniformly favorable to the latter. Thompson estimates this gain at double the gain "to be expected as a function of general maturity and incidental learning" (I8: 7I). The problem in teaching spelling is not to choose between no method and the best method but rather to choose the best method from the

(1969). Some thoughts on direct teaching. Theory Into Practice: Vol. 8, A Fresh Look at the Child (Child Development), pp. 177-179.

The problem involved in this study was to ascertain whether student teachers receiving supervisory feedback with the aid of video and/or audio tape replay demonstrate a greater change in their classroom verbal interactive behavior than student teachers who receive supervisory feedback with no video or audio feedback. Evidence indicates that those receiving video feedback utilize less “direct teaching influence” and more “indirect teaching influence” as categorized by Flanders’ Verbal Interaction Analysis System, Within the audio group, the magnitude of change in the student teachers’ instructional behavior was not statistically significant. The magnitude of the directional change was greater for those students receiving video or audio recorded feedback than the magnitude of change in the control group.

I T IS COMMON KNOWLEDGE that approximately 90 percent of the gross comparisons between the information-gain of of students taught by television and of those taught in more traditional ways have indicated no significant differences. The tendency to interpret these findings to mean that these two conditions of communication--televised and direct ins t ruct ion-do precisely the same job has led to the offering of far more instruction by television than is warranted by research findings. In fact, these findings of no statistically significant differences have been so generally accepted as definitive that there has been little disposition to approach them with an inquiring attitude. It is my purpose here to explore the possible directions in which such an approach might lead. In those experiments comparing the two conditions of communication, the television teacher was usually a person selected because of his competence in direct teaching. In his new role, this teacher was provided 12 to 20 hours of preparation-time for each hour or part of an hour that he was on camera. In planning the scope and sequence of the content to be presented, he was assisted by competent curriculum specialists. He was furnished models, filmstrips, guests, and other aids which either were not readily available or were not even accessible to individual classroom teachers. On the other hand, the more traditional teaching situations were usually staffed by teachers having the varying degrees of effectiveness to be found within the total teaching population. The individual teacher's responsibilities usually included multiple preparations for which he assembled all of the materials himself, the teaching of several classes, pupil guidance, parent conferences, and his fair share of the school's program of extracurricular activities. When the two situations are considered in these ways, it appears that the television lesson is more likely to be well-planned, well-illustrated, well-documented and--because it proceeds without interruption--brought to a timely conclusion than is the lesson taught in the more traditional fashion. It logically follows then, that in the more traditional

(1962). Learning Through Lectures. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas: Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 99-100.

IN HIS WORK, the institutional researcher finds there is a need for a complete cross-section measuring instrument to give him concurrent and consistent data on enrollments, teaching loads, space utilization, budgets and costs, and other items. Where computers are used in student reg istration it is desirable to relate other data to en rollments and to introduce faculty, budget, and time and space information as needed for particu lar statistical products. This brief paper illus trates how faculty loads can be gathered as a basic statistic for integration with other related data. The University of Oregon for a long period has used a blank on which individual faculty members record their many instruction-related and non teaching tasks as well as their direct teaching loads. When used for research, the separate re ports raised some questions such as: are two pro fessors reporting the same students for a seminar in which they cooperate; is the graduate assistant conducting a particular laboratory section or is it the same one the professor reports for himself? For this reason, the department or school recapit ulation form was devised and added to the regular routine. It may be noted that direct recopying from the individual forms to the summary form is kept to a minimum.

ALTHOUGH many educators have accepted the idea that listening is a skill that can be taught, others still consider listening to be an inborn or naturally acquired trait. In the 1960s direct teaching of listening skills received emphasis because the results of research in that area indicate that listening skills can be taught or that listening ability does improve when instruction is given for this specific purpose. Evidence also shows a corresponding improvement in other related language arts skills with the direct teaching of listening skills. In spite of recent attention to listening in periodic literature and in classroom teaching, listening still remains an undeveloped skill or one that gets only nominal attention in many language arts classes. Ironically, studies also show that the average person spends most of his communication time listening and the least writing, the inverse of the emphasis on these two communication skills in most language arts curriculums.

sion of knowledge. Among these educators increasing numbers of language teachers recognize that television presents our profession with one of the most important opportunities and challenges since we began to unite forces to meet common goals. Here is how we are meeting the challenge: Developments since 1947. During the 7year history of FLTV up to December 1954, from 25 to 30 television stations have featured foreign language programs, which represent about five percent of the total number of educational programs in this country.' Thanks to the effective help of the Modern Language Association, the teachers who have pioneered in the new medium are well organized, aware of common problems, and constantly informed about new developments.2 The oldest campus-originated program is "One World-Invitation to Spanish," which began in July 1947 at Creighton University in Omaha. The first part of this closed-circuit telecast was a teaching demonstration with a child as learner (foreign languages are easy: even children can speak them!). The second part was direct teaching with use of realia and blackboard.