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While sequencing of speaking turns occurs in both adult and child systems, the adult system is elaborated by nonverbal signaling of speaker/listener roles and is constrained by expectations of speaking turns responsive to a shared topic. Children's speaking turns are not accompanied regularly by nonverbal signals; the speaker role does not require a listener role. Monologue speech elements may occur within the child's turn taking system or outside of it as simultaneous talk. In encounters between child and adult speaking systems the teacher regularly attempts to impose his own dialogue and topic continuation constraints upon the child's more flexible speaking system. Also, the teacher regularly picks up an utterance of the child's monolgue and paraphrases it into a question to which the child again is forced to answer. Presumably through time such systematic adult monitoring will result in the child coming to accept such constraints as part of his own speaking turn system. Likewise, the child will incorporate the adult nonverbal signals and cues. (WR)

Previous research has shown that both vocal and visual cues are utilized in stereotyping and that teachers' stereotypes of students' ethnic and social class backgrounds affect both their expectations and evaluations of them. This study offers evidence toward the following questions: (1) do teachers evaluate students differently according to mode of presentation, students' ethnicity, and social class? and (2) what is the relative influence of aural and visual cues upon teachers' evaluations? Videotapes of Grade 5 and 6 Anglo, black, and Chicano middle and lower class students were presented to 156 teachers who rated the students on 15 semantic differential scales. A 3 x 3 x 2 analysis of variance for repeated measures revealed significant effects for all 15 scales. Anglos were rated most positively, followed by blacks; chicanos were rated least favorably. Middle class Anglos and blacks were rated more favorably then lower class Anglos and blacks, respectively; however, class made no difference in the ratings for Chicanos. The aural mode of presentation transmitted more cues than the visual mode. (Authors/RJ)

The experiment described in this report investigates the effects of various cognitive cues in questions asked regarding the relationship of elements in pictorial depth perception. The subjects of this study are 40 third grade Black and Puerto Rican children. They are confronted with four pictures from the Hudson Depth Perception Tests and asked to reply to questions concerning depth perception relationships. The varying cues in the question on relationships draw varying reactions from the subjects, thereby suggesting certain conclusions. The results support the theory that expressions containing marked adjectives are more difficult than their counterparts. Details of the experiment, findings, and discussion are included in this report. References are provided. (VM)

The purposes of this study were to assess the effect of phoneme-grapheme consistency (PGC) and cue emphasis (CE) on the development of decoding skills in first graders and to determine the relationship of consistency of original lists to the recognition of new words. Subjects were 162 first graders, mean age 6.11 years and scoring above 30 on the Metropolitan Readiness Test (MRT), randomly assigned to 18 treatment groups. Original word lists and recognition new word lists were developed for both high-PGC and low-PGC words. Subjects learned one list of eight words on each of 3 consecutive days. While all subjects learned words with all the CE methods, half the groups learned consistent words, and the other half learned inconsistent words. At the end of the last session, all subjects were given the recognition new word lists to assess their ability to decode these words. It was found that (1) there were no differences in the number of words recognized by high- and low-PGC groups for the first 2 days, but by the third day the high PGC groups recognized more words; (2) subjects recognized more auditory-CE words than visual- or kinesthetic-CE words; and (3) PGC of original lists did not affect the number of words recognized. Tables, figures, and references are included. (AW)

The purpose of this study was to examine young Children's tendencies to be task or socially oriented in an experimental situation. On the basis of past research, two independent variables were chosen: field dependence-independence and sex. It was expected that field-dependent subjects and girls would tend to be more socially oriented, while field-independent subjects and boys would tend to be more task oriented. The results from the two experimental tasks used generally failed to confirm this hypothesis. There were no significant differences in amount of imitation on the first task; and, on the second task, only the boys tended to utilize the social cue that could facilitate their performance on the second part of the task. However, field-dependent subjects did glance more at the experimenter and were more verbally dependent, in accord with the general prediction. With regard to these last results, the possibility that social orientation may sometimes serve as a task-avoidant strategy is discussed. (Author)

This study examined how relevant cues given by an experimenter might differentially affect the performance of task versus socially oriented children on two games. On the basis of past research, two independent variables were chosen: field dependence-independence and sex. It was expected that field-dependent children and girls would tend to be more socially oriented and therefore more responsive to social cues, while field-independent children and boys would tend to be more task oriented and less responsive to social cues. The results supported the expectations regarding field dependence-independence but failed to support those regarding sex differences. (Author)

Three procedures of the free-sort methodology which are usually standardized were varied in an attempt to discover the effects of such variation upon the number and nature of manifest categorizations. The conditions investigated were effectiveness of the sorting cue, the effects of the order of stimulus presentation and the effect of re-sorting. An explicit sorting cue was shown to be a highly significant determinant of the number of manifest categorizations, but not of the quality or nature of these categorizations when compared with an implicit (instructional) sorting cue. The effects of differing explicit sorting cues should be the object of further study. The effects of stimulus ordering were not significant as anticipated, although the treatment means were in the predicted order. Subjects encountering initial stimuli which were very homogeneous formed more manifest categories (means=7.88) than did subjects sorting decks with initial-heterogeneous (mean=6.45) or completely randomized (mean=6.76) stimuli. Subjects encouraged to re-sort their manifest categorizations formed categories which were significantly different in nature, but not in number, from the categorizations of subjects who were not encouraged to re-sort. In addition, there was a significant interaction effect between re-sorting and type of sorting cue. (Author)

Gibb (1964) defined test-wiseness (TW) as the ability to respond advantageously to item clues in a multiple-choice setting and therefore to obtain credit without knowledge of the subject matter being tested. This study investigated TW in a sample of 6th grade pupils. A test instrument was developed utilizing fictitious material similar to the strategy employed by Slakter, et al (1970). The study examined the cognitive correlates of TW through the interpretation of correlational matrices and factor analyses. The results lend support to the notion that TW is not a general trait, but rather is clue-specific. (Author)

A study was conducted to investigate a series of hypothesized cues used in recognizing aural stimuli (Nonsense syllable trigrams) by adapting to the oral mode an experimental technique used successfully in visual word recognition studies. Three classes of cues were studied: (1) a cue for position, (2) a cur for the of cues were studied: (1) a cue for position, (2) a cue for the unit of recognition, and (3) a reversal cue. A tape-recorded test was presented to kindergarten, first-grade, and second-grade subjects. Each subject was offered an opportunity to make a series of 30 auditory matches on the basis of five cues: (1) a consonant in the initial position, (2) a consonant followed by a vowel in the initial position, (3) a consonant in the final position, (4) a consonant preceded by a vowel in the final position, and (5) a reversal. It was found that: (1) Children in visually discriminating between two similar looking words of one syllable tend to use the initial grapheme; (2) In aurally discriminating between two similar sounding one-syllable words, children tend to use the final segment or rhyme; (3) The first unit of recognition used visually is the single letter segment; and (4) The unit of recognition used aurally is a two phoneme segment made up of a vowel and consonant combination. (CK)

Giving names for pictures of familiar objects to nursery school children improves their later recognition of those pictures. This improvement occurs even though the children can easily name the pictures when asked. The present research eliminated the sufficiency of several possible explanations. The names might have provided a response to rehearse and consequently use to differentiate the recognition alternatives. But this explanation is insufficient since names help even for recognition tests containing distractors with the same names as the correct pictures. Names might have helped by providing specific retrieval cues. The child could then use this general knowledge in analyzing and storing specific characteristics. This explanation is insufficient since grossly incongruous descriptions help recognition as do appropriate labels or descriptions. It seems that under these conditions any description which is itself meaningful stimulates a young child to more actively analyze and store accompanying pictures. The extreme non-specificity of this effect suggests caution in attributing labeling effects to specific characteristics associated with the label. (Author/RG)

The purpose of Experiment I was to investigate the context effect of letter perception for nonword material. The significance of finding a context effect for nonwords would be that the basis of the effect would have to be a product of a person's knowledge of the phonological or orthographic structure of the language rather than attributable to a person knowing a particular letter string as a word. Letter strings composed of an initial consonant, a medial vowel pair, and a terminal consonant pair (CVVCC) were compared with strings composed of the same initial and terminal units but with a medial consonant pair (CCCCC) in a tachistoscopic recognition task. Exactly the same letters in the same positions (first, fourth and fifth letters) were detected with much higher accuracy in the CVVCCs as compared to the CCCCCs. The objective of Experiment II was to see if the presentation interval used in Experiment I was too short to allow maximal performance for the CCCCCs. It seemed possible that iconic memory deteriorated too quickly after the offset of presentation to allow the subjects viewing CCCCCs to extract enough information for maximal performance. The hypothesis was confirmed in that performance for the CCCCCs improved by extending the presentation time. (Author/WR)

This report describes eight experiments dealing with intentional forgetting. The results of the first experiment indicated that not attempting to recall items did not affect appreciably the later recall of these items. The second, third, and fourth experiments indicated that with blocked intra-serial cuing, the more processing allotted to an item, the more likely it was to be remembered. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh experiments, items were presented individually. They were then followed by a blank interval of time that could vary, and then the item's instruction appeared. It was found that final recognition for remember and forget items was positively related to the length of the interval, while final recall was not. In the eighth experiment it was found that implicit forget items were more likely than explicit forget items to be intruded in immediate recall, to be recalled during final recall, and to be recognized in a final recognition test. (DI)

The general purposes of this project were to test microteaching procedures for teacher training and to study relations between the process of teaching and its outcome. The project made use of "cued" video models (a short peep being superimposed whenever the model demonstrated a goal-related behavior), videotape self-feedback with self-evaluation forms to focus student attention on the particular skill, and the teaching skills of silence and nonverbal behavior. A follow-up program for a few months after treatment is planned. Of all the variables tested, only locomotion consistently showed a main effect for the factor of modeling. The contrast was between the presence and nonpresence of models, the type of model making no difference. Cuing terminal behavior was no more effective than noncuing. (Included are appropriate tables and a list of references.) (JA)

The relation between type of label and perception of faces was assessed. Sixty-four second and sixth grade Ss were randomly assigned to four experimental conditions in which various kinds of labeling training were associated with four purple and green smiling and frowning faces. Ss then judged the similarity of pairs of the faces. Results revealed the predicted effects of labeling only for white children. Labels associated with color cues augmented the perception of color differences, whereas labels based on expression increased differentiation of expression variations, but not of color cues. (Author)

Additional support to a stimulus-response (S-R) association by the use of an extraneous stimulus is called "prompting." Prompting has an effect on learner achievement particularly if the prompting agent is identical on successive S-R trials. This experiment sought to analyze the differences in learner achievement when different prompting stimuli were used on all the trials of the instructional sequence. The experiment was conducted in an industrial arts class that consisted of students, Grade 6 through Grade 9. The students were divided into five test groups and were directed to learn ten basic electronic symbols over six successive trials. Prompting agents appeared in all the trials, however for two of the groups the agents remained unchanged. Contrary to expectation, the study did not detect significant differences in learner performance regardless of the prompting pattern. (MC)

The effectiveness of two types of retrieval cues was assessed with second- and sixth-grade children. After a single presentation of a list of words, the children first recalled as many of the words as they could. Following free recall, children in each grade were given either conceptual (category names for words on the input lists) or acoustic (words which rhymed with words on the list) retrieval cues for the words missed in free recall. For all students conceptual cues were more effective than acoustic cues. For sixth-grade students both types of cues were more effective than could be expected on the basis of guessing. Second graders performed less well than sixth graders with both types of cues. While conceptual cues produced above-chance performance at the second-grade level, acoustic cues did not. Results are discussed in terms of developmental changes in memory attributes. (Author)

Reminiscence, or an increase in retention scores from a short-to-long-term retention test, has been shown in some previous work to be a significant function of arousal. Previous studies of the effects of color versus black-and-white audiovisual presentations have generally used film or television and have found no facilitating effect of color on learning or achievement. No such studies, however, have specifically studied reminiscence, although there is reason to believe that color would be more arousing than black-and-white and thus should facilitate reminiscence. The present experiment examined reminiscence over one week as a function of color versus black-and-white slide-tape presentations. It was found that the proportion of subjects reminiscing in the color condition was significantly greater (p.05, one-tailed test) than the proportion reminiscing in the black-and-white condition. No contribution of a measure of individual differences in arousal or stimulation seeking was obtained. The relative lack of strength of the color effect was noted, and some design considerations for further research on learning and memory effects of color were outlined. (Author/MC)

Kindergarten, second-grade, fifth-grade, and college subjects were tested in a serial-position recall task under each of four conditions: Visual stimuli/visual recall cue, visual stimuli/auditory recall cue, auditory stimuli/visual recall cue, auditory stimuli/auditory recall cue. Visual stimuli were pictures of common animals and objects; auditory stimuli were the tape recorded names of these animals and objects. Two serial positions were probed on each trial. At all grade levels: (1) recall of visual stimuli was markedly superior to that of auditory stimuli, (2) modality of recall cue had no effect, (3) primacy and recency effects were found for both visual and auditory stimuli. Delayed testing (Probe 2) produced a decrement in auditory stimulus recall but not in visual stimulus recall. It was suggested that overt labeling of pictorial stimuli functionally changes the stimuli from being purely visual to being both visual and auditory. (Author)

This report discusses the success of desensitization techniques in alleviating specific anxiety but its failure in treating generalized anxiety. Anxiety management training (AMTO has been developed to overcome some of the deficiencies of desensitization approaches. Through the use of instructions and cues to arouse anxiety responses and the training of clients to develop competing responses such as relaxation, success, or competency, AMT provides the individual with a method for self-control appropriate to any anxiety provoking situation. Forty undergraduates referred by counseling centers participated in a study to assess the effectiveness of AMT. AMT was found to be effective in reducing both generalized and public speaking anxiety. A second paper presents the considerations involved in setting up a desensitization program in a counseling center. Areas covered include preparatory procedures, assessment of need, announcement of services, program operation, and follow-up and evaluation. (Author/LAA)

The purpose of the study was to test the discriminative cue hypothesis by attempting to train pupils to increase effort following a high expectancy condition and to reduce effort following a low expectancy condition. Fourth grade high-IQ low achievers were used as subjects in the study, because the authors felt that while they would learn fast, they would not be as likely as high-IQ high achievers to have previously learned responses to expectancy conditions. The results of the experiment support the hypothesis that children can learn to behave differentially to different adult expectancies when the expectancies are followed by consistently different outcomes; thus the "discriminative cue" function proposed for expectancy conditions is supported. The study provides a valuable model for an analysis of teacher behavior, implying that many kinds of teacher statements and non-verbal cues may potentially serve as discriminative cues for children. Used positively, such cues can increase responding and even bring about initial responses in new situations. (SES)

A study was conducted to determine the ways in which multi-sensory cues can be simulated and effectively used in the training of pilots. Two analytical bases, one called the stimulus environment approach and the other an information array approach, are developed along with a cue taxonomy. Cues are postulated on the basis of information gained from the outside visual world, from sounds generated by the aircraft, and from aircraft motion and control movements. The physical characteristics of the postulated cues are emphasized. Hypotheses are developed based upon the effects of the postulated cues as they function independently and as they function in interaction with cues in other modalities. Experimentation is recommended which will lead to the verification and/or the modification of cue postulations. (Author/JY)

This study examines the effects on long-term retention of variations in intensity and temporal parameters of arousal following a single learning trial in a paired-associate task. Intensity of arousal was manipulated by using two levels of noise, 75 db. and 90 db., and a condition without noise. Noise was delivered to the 56 female university student subjects at 0-3 minutes, 3-6 minutes, and 6-9 minutes following a learning trial. The main effect of level of arousal was not significant. However, the results do tend to indicate that a moderate level of arousal induced between 6-9 minutes is conducive to the consolidation process, resulting in superior long-term recall. The results are discussed in terms of a multi-stage analysis of memory consolidation and directions for further research are outlined. (Author/TL)

Two concepts predominate in studies of spatial invasion: territoriality (personalization and defense of a fixed spatial area) and personal space (a portable area surrounding the individual, which is responsive to environmental change). Spatial invasions were carried out by occupying a marked seat (invade condition), and adjacent seat (adjacent condition), and one across from the marked space (across condition) in a cafeteria situation using students as subjects. Reactions were tested by methods increasing in realism: (1) questionnaire; (2) doll placement; (3) laboratory simulation; (4) field simulation; and (5) field experiment. The results supported the expectations that (1) individuals respond to social distance rather than territorial defense in a cafeteria situation; and (2) except where experimental manipulation is so powerful as to eliminate virtually all variation among subjects (i.e., the invade and across conditions), different methods produce different results, with the greatest differences between those methods most different. These findings are explained in terms of the decreasing number of task relevant cues available to the subject in increasingly artificial situations. (KS)

The most commonly stated and demonstrated shortcoming of the employment interview is its lack of reliability. Yet Wagner (1949) was able to conclude that the reliability of an employment interview is situation and interviewer specific. In this study, the author investigated the interviewer's scoring system, the way he weighs and combines the information he gathers as he attempts to make a personnel decision. This information processing includes: (1) assessing the interrelations of the cues; (2) assessing the validity of the cues for his given purpose; and (3) combining the individual validities while partialling out the common variance among the cues. Results show that: (1) interviewers make adjustments when they perceive redundant information; (2) they process negative information more accurately than positive information; and (3) they differ widely in terms of how valid and interdependent they perceive information units to be. The decisions or hiring recommendations were based almost exclusively on the overall evaluations of the information which the interviewers received and processed. If the final evaluation exceeded the base rate of success, the recommendation was to hire; if not, the recommendation was to reject. (TA)

The major purpose of this study was 1) to investigate the development of the concept of a unit of measure and the coordination of unit size and the number of units 2) to relate this development to the development of conservation and 3) to determine the role of equivalence and nonequivalence relations in certain conservation and measurement problems. 218 subjects (grades K-2) were individually tested on items selected from a set of conservation and measurement problems. In one set of measurement problems, quantities were measured with different size units of measure. Centering on either unit size or the number of units alone lead to errors similar to those found in conservation problems. In a second set of measurement problems, quantities in different shaped containers were measured with the same unit. Each type of problem was administered in three situations employing different combinations of equivalence and nonequivalence relations. Results are discussed in detail. (Author/MS)

This study investigated the kinds of dimensions that children use to compare and contrast two sets of social stimuli--houses and jobs. The research was based on the assumption that obtaining knowledge of how similarity structures are formed for social domains would be useful in explaining the development of personal preferences and conceptions of social status. Free sort and triad procedures, and preference and importance rank orders were used to explore the ways in which 120 fourth and seventh graders from urban and suburban areas categorized houses and jobs. The younger children grouped pairs of houses with similar details and pairs of jobs with similar functions. The older children used a greater variety of different criteria to group the stimuli and were more likely to sort the total array on the basis of a single attribute. Explicit social status categories were used infrequently by all children. Status was an important determinant of preferences and important ranks. Urban children liked more houses than did suburban children--perhaps reflecting an attempt to minimize their own distance from the top. Job preferences and importance rank orders resembled adult occupational prestige rankings. While social status knowledge increased with age, even the older children were more likely to select glamorous jobs as ideals than high status ones. (Author/JLB)

Children of ages 5 and 8 years were given one of three learning tasks: (a) a component selection problem, in which two stimulus components were redundant and (b) two incidental learning tasks, in which one component of the stimuli was task-relevant and the other was incidental. A posttest, measuring the children's recall for information about each component separately, was assumed to reflect the degree of attention directed to each component during learning. Attention to the nondominant component was found to increase with age when this feature was redundant with the dominant component and could thus serve as a second functional cue (component selection task), but not when it was incidental. These results suggest a developmental increase in the flexibility of attention deployment, as the tendency for children to exercise selective attention varies with the requirements of the task. (Author)

By utilizing reinforcing and punishing light cues the verbal output and leadership status of Target Ss in a four-person group was manipulated. There were three conditions: Control (no light cues used); Agree, where Non-Target Ss were reinforced for agreeing with the Target, and punished for all other verbalizations; and Disagree, where Non-Target Ss were reinforced for disagreeing with the Target and punished for all other verbalizations. From social exchange theory it was predicted that both experimental groups would show significant increases on the dependent measures over trials and in comparison with a control group, but the Disagree group would not show the same effect on the leadership rankings. In general, the results supported the notion that one leadership function is the maximization of the rewards/costs ratio, and the group will rank members in the order of their ability to fulfill this function. (Author)

Nursery school children (N=64) received seven tests of conservation of number which varied in the type and number of perceptual supports for conservation. Most of the tests with these supports facilitated performance in comparison to the standard conservation test. Conservation appeared earlier than usual. There were significant effects of supports which emphasized correspondence and deemphasized length cues, unclear effects of the number of objects, and no effect of interest value of the stimuli. There was a set effect; i.e., beginning with the easiest test produced more conservation overall than did beginning with the most difficult test. It was proposed that the development of conservation involves several levels, varying from an early rudimentary understanding of invariance to the final, mature conception of number. (Author/SET)

The purpose of this research was to experimentally manipulate input and output orders of information and separate storage and retrieval components of prose free recall. The cued partial recall method, used in word list recall, was adapted to a prose learning task. Four short biographical stories of about 55 words each were systematically combined into four larger passages such that each story appeared once in the four possible serial positions of stories. Each story contained six facts about a fictional person. A total of 48 subjects from a basic psychology class were given two and one half minutes to read a passage. Recall followed immediately and subjects were required to recall as much factual information as possible from one story before turning a page to recall material from another story. The cue used to constrain recall order was the name of the person described in the particular story. Subjects were given unlimited time for recall. The results indicated that the primacy effect in prose free recall is the result of order of recall as well as order of input of information. The primacy effect in prose free recall may be the result of output interference affecting the efficient use of retrieval information. (WR)

A terminological approach, constructed around key words in textual material, emphasizes vocabulary in the context of organized frames of reference. This research was directed toward stating a terminological approach in operational terms in order to develop and test procedures for acquiring vocabulary by computer. Three phases are described: (1) the construction of a computer program for comparing two acquisition models, (2) the development of a data base (course content) through the use of the above procedures, and (3) the evaluation of the approach and acquisition models in an experimental study. A blocked-presentation model was compared with spaced presentation, the former supported by concept formation studies and the latter by studies in school learning. Results favoring spaced presentation are discussed in terms of information encoding, and performance gains are described along with suggestions for improving effectiveness. (Author/LL)