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Continuous measurement of Onyx River inflow, lake level, ice surface ablation, ice thickness and density, were recorded for almost a year at Lake Yanda (77° 35′ S, 161° 39′ E), the largest of the perennially ice-covered lakes. The major changes in these variables occurred during the summer period, due to the presence of the sun and sustained easte~ly and westerly winds of up to 25 knots. Correlation of Onyx River inflow of 1.01 × 107m3 and rise in lake level of 192 mm indicates possible subterranean seepage into Lake Yanda. Long, calm winter periods of up to 25 days resulted in an extremely low ice surface ablation of 54.9 mm. An annual ablation estimate of 140 mm indicates evaporation strongly dependent upon solar energy input. Lake Yanda is situated in a sheltered depression between the Asgard and Olympus Ranges, in which a low total snow-precipitation of 85.6 mm was recorded from February to November 1969. Recordings are to be maintained over a 2–3 year period for a water budget determination.

Recent bathythermographic surveys carried out on the research vessel Porte Dauphine have provided estimates of heat content for Lake Ontario and permitted a preliminary study of its energy budget. The imbalance between the absorbed short wavelength sun and sky radiation, and the losses due to evaporation, sensible heat conduction and net long wavelength back radiation, result in heating of lake water from March to August and cooling from September or October to February. The peak heat content lags the peak surface temperature by about one month. The amount of energy advected into the lake is relatively small compared with other terms in the energy budget. Thus, energy budget calculations do not depend upon the accuracy with which the water budget is known. The principal difficulty in applying present techniques for determination of an energy budget is lack of meterological data over the lake surface.

Cumulative evapotranspiration, measured by soil—moisture changs over a growing season, was only slightly greater in intact zones of a gamma—irradiated oak—pine forest than in severely damaged zones. In the central part of this forest where exposures exceeded 160 R/day and only scattered herbaceous plants survived, cumulative evapotranspiration was about 85% that of the intact forest. Rates of evapotranspiration increased along the gradient of decreasing radiation damage during the first half of the growing season, but were roughly equal at all exposures during a drought in the latter half of the season. Differences in rates of evapotranspiration were detectable at chronic exposures of 11.5 R/day, where the dominants retained 50% of their foliage. See full-text article at JSTOR

Hydrologic design of Ramganga Dam, a major dam in northern India, brings forth the special problems in countries where limited hydrologic data are available. The extension of the stage-discharge curve for the river necessitated backwater computations and development of suitable correlations because of the varying friction slope. Monthly rainfall-runoff relations from limited data have been used for transforming the rainfall data and for preparing a 60-year water budget to determine the useful reservoir yield and its probable variation. Optimum baseflow for use with unit hydrograph and design storms was estimated from the association between the flood-producing storm and the antecedent baseflow. Regional flood potential study was found to be a useful tool for checking design floods derived from design storms and unit hydrograph. Provision of an auxiliary spillway at a safe distance from the main dam reduces reservoir surcharge for extremely rare floods.

The general characteristics of the coastal regions between long. 45° E. and long. 80° E. are described. The features and conditions are similar to those found along the coasts of the Australian sector further to the east. Measurements of accumulation, snow transport, ice flow and ablation are described and results are given.Accumulation, measured from stakes and pits, is 1.0 × 1014 gm./yr. in a 1 km. wide strip running 850 km. inland from the coast of MacRobertson Land. The methods of gauging drifting snow and extrapolating the results are given and a meridional mass transport of 0.16 × 1014 gm./km. yr. is deduced. Iceberg calving rates given in a previous paper are again quoted, although they are now felt to be too low. Net ablation is 0.053 × 1014 gm./km. yr. and additional evaporation above the firn limit accounts for 0.045 x 1014 gm./km. yr. The estimates are compared with old and new observations from other parts of Antarctica and the problem of bottom melting beneath ice shelves is discussed.A distinction is made between the meteorological water budget for Antarctica and the glaciological mass balance for the ice sheet. Mass budgets for the sector between long. 45° E. and long. 80° E. and for the whole of Antarctica are drawn up. In each case a surplus of accumulation over losses appears, but it is felt that the data are insufficient to claim that the ice sheet is growing at the present time. The drift snow and ablation losses are added to the net accumulation to give a figure of 14 cm. of water as the mean annual precipitation over Antarctica, a value lying between the estimates of Meinardus and Kosack.

The Gulf Stream, as it passes the southern extremity of the Grand Banks, transports water whose oxygen-density relationship closely resembles the Sargasso Sea average established by Richards and Redfield (1955). The currents which flow to the north, off the Flemish Cap, transport water which has a similar temperature-salinity correlation to that of the Sargasso Sea but which is richer in oxygen by about 1 ml/l at every sigma-t surface in the prycnocline. for this reason it is suggested that the Gulf Stream does not turn to the northward after passing the Grand Banks but continues to flow in a southeasterly direction, and that the currents which pass the Flemish Cap are part of a separate, northerly gyre. Evidence is produced for the existence of a nearly permanent trough of low pressure separating the two gyres. A water budget consistent with the distribution of oxygen is presented.

Derived insolation and water budget evaporation data for Lake Superior and Lake Ontario are analyzed in terms of both the regional and the water surface energy balances. The results indicate that the seasonal pattern of evaporation is governed by heat storage changes, and that these changes are closely associated with atmospheric energy export from the lake. This finding provides a physical basis for the simple empirical relationships between monthly evaporation and island-to-mainland temperature differentials that are developed from the water budget evaporation data. Substantial atmospheric energy export, a concomitant of heat storage changes, reduces the energy available for evaporation. Therefore, evaporation from a large deep lake is less than that from a large shallow lake under comparable climatic conditions. The analysis also provides speculative reasoning and evidence to indicate that evaporation from a large deep lake is closely related to the radiant heat transfer to the sky.

In typical squall-line situations wherein the wind veers strongly with height, individual convective storms move as much as 60 deg right or 30 deg left of the direction of the mean wind in the cloud layer. It is shown that, on the average, the radar echoes having largest diameters move farthest to right of the wind. This behavior is consistent with physical considerations and with supply-and-demand requirements of the storm water budget. For a given rainfall intensity, the amount of water precipitated by a storm is proportional to its area or to the diameter squared. The amount of water vapor intercepted is proportional directly to the diameter, and to the velocity of the storm relative to the winds of the lower-tropospheric moist layer. A large storm must intercept more vapor in proportion to its diameter than a small one, requiring a larger migration velocity relative to the moist layer. This requirement is satisfied if (wind veering with height) large storms move toward the right of the mean w...

Small water bodies create their own characteristic local meteorological environments. The heat and water budgets will generally vary with surface area and water depth. If a small pond gradually becomes covered by vegetation, its meteorological conditions will change. On occasion, a vegetated area may change into a pond, complete with vegetation established in the water and extending above the surface. Such are beaver ponds and other flooded areas. The paper discusses the main features of the development of beaver ponds and their heat and water budgets at different stages. The energy budget programme used was previously developed by the authors, but it has been modified to account for the different phases of the pond development. The effects of the various physical changes are evaluated by comparing the individual heat and water budget terms for different stages between an open lake surface and a forest cover. The local heat budget will only be affected on a small scale by the establishment of a b...

1. 1. Water loss and salt excretion were measured in Pizonyx vivesi, a desert bat which feeds on marine crustacea and fish. 2. 2. Evaporative water losses were higher than those of other mammals, but were considerably reduced when bats were torpid. 3. 3. P. vivesi can concentratel saltes in the urine sufficiently to utilize sea water as a water source. 4. 4. Calculation of the complete water budget indicates with P. vivesi probably requires sea water to maintain water balance. 5. 5. Data on salt content of the bat's diet suggest that, with low evaporative losses, other marine mammals can obtain all necessary water from a diet of crustacea only, without utilizing sea water.

The components of the water budget of irrigated pasture land were measured at a locality about 35°S latitude. The techniques of measurement yielded a standard error of about 10% of the total inventory. Income, comprising rain and irrigation, was 2,100 mm/year. Expenditure was 2,060 mm, comprised of 1,140 mm evaporation and 920 mm drainage. The evaporation, measured with the help of small lysimeters, was strongly correlated with measured net radiation. Three formulae for estimating evaporation, based upon combination principles ( McIlroy and Angus , 1964) were tried. By suitable choice of the coefficient for introducing the effect of the drying power of the air into the formula it is possible to obtain a close estimate of evaporation. But the correlation is no better than the correlation between evaporation and net radiation.

A water budget study for Puget Sound and its principal subregions, based on the freshwater, seawater, and total water budgets, determines the mean fluxes of water into and out of these regioas, the freshwater content, and the change in freshwater content by month and by year. Data used to calculate the budgets include monthly mean values of precipitation, evaporation, runoff, changes in sea level, mean salt content, and the s’alinities of inflowing and outflowing waters for each subregion. The fluxes of water calculated in the budget analysis yield an approximation of flushing efficiency and replacement time for Puget Sound and its subregions. The monthly freshwater content, along with the fluxes of water and their salt load, indicates that river runoff does not by itself control the freshwater content of a particular subregion; considerable freshwater is added by the inflow of water from an adjacent embayment.

A survey of Soviet research focuses on climatic fluctuation and its causes, the geographical aspects of hydrology, and work on Arctic, Antarctic and mountain glaciation. The Physical-Geographic Atlas of the World, published in 1964, is used as an illustration of the result of Soviet research in these fields. Problems of transformation of the water budget and of climate are viewed as research fields of the future.

Monthly mean values of evaporation from Lake Ontario for the period from 1872 to 1965 inclusive were generated by a mass transfer procedure. Available onshore recorded meteorologic data were adjusted to obtain approximate over lake values with empirically derived equations. The mass transfer coefficient was calculated by using an equation proposed by Harbeck [1962] relating the coefficient with water surface area. A comparison of the generated mass transfer evaporation data with water budget estimates obtained by Morton [1967] revealed that on the average the two methods gave similar results.

Many studies within the field of limestone hydrology have established the existence of direct underground flow routes followed by water1,2). A wide variety of tracers have been used 3-s) and applications of this information to the avoidance and correction of pollution problems are also under way a). The rapidity of flow-through, coupled with the inefficiency of cavernous limestones as water purifiers, makes such applications highly desirable. It would be both useful and interesting to have information other than simple connection routes. We have devised a method which determines the water budget of a karst system. Knowing the existence of a single sink point and spring in a particular aquifer, we can establish with one measuring programme whether a connection exists between the two points, whether there are any other sinks and/or risings which are also significant parts of the drainage network, and what quantities of water are carried by these components of the system. The method integrates stream gauging data with simultaneous dye connection and gauging tests, and thus determines both a water and a dye budget for the aquifer. Fluorescent tracers have been used in karst areas of the world for many years, but the recent availability of high sensitivity fluorometers has enhanced their value considerably10). Fluorescent dyes can be used not only to trace but also to gauge the discharge rates of rivers and streams, and are especially useful under certain conditions when other gauging methods are impracticablell,12). I f a known quantity of dye (or other tracer) is introduced either as a slug or at a constant rate into a particular sink and its concentration measured continuously at a spring, then the fraction of the sinking water discharging at the rising can be calculated, subject to errors of dye adsorption and disintegration. I f the dye is introduced to a stream sufficiently far above a sink then it can be used there for gauging purposes. However, it cannot be used to gauge the spring discharge rate since not all of the dye may be recovered. By

Many prairie potholes in North Dakota are filled with emergent aquatic vegetation. The paper describes briefly how evapotranspiration losses were determined for such potholes using a mass-transfer equation in which the coefficient was evaluated by means of a water budget. Vegetation, by its presence, reduces evaporation below the normal from a free water surface so much that the total seasonal (May - October) evapotranspiration loss is less than the normal evaporation loss from a pothole clear of vegetation.

When the heat budget is applied to determine the evaporation from a lake of varying volume, the water budget must be considered. Using the continuity of the system a modified equation for evaporation from the heat budget has been developed. The modified equation has a term in the denominator that includes a base temperature used in the calculations. This equation is flexible in use and permits minimizing errors due to unknown quantities in the water budget.

Precipitation falling over surface of Great Lakes is considerably less than precipitation falling on adjacent land areas; evaporation computed by water budget method is reduced in same amount as precipitation; annual amount of net evaporation from Lake Ontario computed by water budget and mass transfer methods is of order of 2.0 ft.

Duration and amount of dew under a variety of topographic and vegetative-cover conditions were studied on the Priest River Experimental Forest in northern Idaho during the summer of 1958. Dew was measured by a continuous-recording device that registered the change in weight of an expanded polystyrene (Styrofoam) block. Dew deposits ranged from zero on cloudy, windy nights to a maximum of 0.014 inch during a clear night following a day with rain. Monthly amounts of dew ranged from 7 to 29 per cent of the monthly rainfall. Dew was deposited only on the flat of the Priest River Valley and along the Benton Creek valley bottom. Dew was not deposited under the forest canopy or on the slopes.

In this report, the author presents the estimation of evaporation from the soil surface by means of water budget.Among the factors required in computing the evaporation in consideration of water budget, the potential evaporations are determined by using a potential-evapotranspirometer. The ground water-level was regulated to seventy centimeter deep during the experience.The variations of soil moisture storage are very close to those of water level in a neighbouring old well. It is also found that the water surplus and defficiency have the close connection on the variation of stream-flow level in the neighborhood.

A summary is given of the main features of the Red Sea circulation caused by evaporation and wind stress. Average temperature and salinity distributions are discussed, and some estimates of the water budget and water renewal times are calculated.

Evaporation losses from surface reservoirs is major item in water budget of Western States; methods of minimizing evaporation losses are described; two methods warranting study are use of monomolecular film, such as hexadecanol, on water surface and use of ground-water reservoirs for storage.

Estimates of the water budget of Long Island Sound suggest that it could become the largest reservoir in the United States, with a freshwater surplus equal to 12 times the present needs of New York City. The engineering aspects of this undertaking are within the scope of present technology. The dam structures required to isolate this area from the sea could serve as important highway links in place of highway-bridge projects presently under study.

Prior to 1946, it was the usual practice, and still is in a great many cities in Illinois, to construct a water department budget, estimate the income from water rents, and put the difference between the expenses and the income into the city's general fund. When the needs of the city were greater than the money in the general fund would support, one way to increase the amount in the general fund was to reduce the water budget. If the needs were really urgent, water rates were increased and the increase transferred to the general fund. This has happened, and perhaps is still happening in other cities, but the author considers it wrong for the legislative body of any city to use its water rates as an indirect

Introductory Note: The dynamic equilibrium of the various factors involved in the world water balance or budget is the central scientific problem of the International Hydrological Decade. One of the potentially vital elements of the balance is groundwater discharge to the oceans. To paraphrase the authors of the following Russian publication, the world water budget can't be properly balanced, statically or dynamically, until there are improved values for the amount of groundwater that is discharged directly to oceans, seas, and enclosed lakes. The following report, with its bibliography, presents some Russian approaches to the problem and provides a few bits of numerical information. The report was translated by Frank W. Trainer of the U.S. Geological Survey. The text has been slightly reduced in the interests of saving space but the bibliography is given in full and has been transcribed into more or less standard U.S. Geological Survey bibliographical style.