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Although texts on debate and argumentation deal with accepted forms of evidence, reasoning, and logical methods of proof, they do not cover adequately the "undefined" forms of proof. Criteria of evidence found in forensic literature are not always followed strictly by judges, in courtroom or classroom. Many debate judges allow imprecise, vague, or inaccurate reasoning ("non-evidential" proof) the same credibility as more reliable evidence. A more pragmatic definition of evidence should be that it covers anything that influences the outcome of a debate or a trial, including such factors as a speaker's appearance, his manner of presentation, and his persuasive tactics other than use of facts, testimony, or documentation. The outcome can depend also on the attitudes of the judge or jury and their interpretation of the material presented. A knowledge of undefined forms of proof, or non-evidential evidence, will help debaters evaluate their powers of persuasion more realistically. (RN)

In a 1968 address, Franklyn S. Haiman stated that public discourse at that time was marked by irrationality because of emphases on emotional appeals, disorganization, and aggressive or abusive style and language. He also cited "body rhetoric" (lawful protests or marches) and civil disobedience (illegal actions) as examples of irrational arguments. Haiman's statement on emotional appeals suggests a logic-emotion dichotomy, with reason and emotion at opposite ends of a continuum. However, logical argument and emotional appeal are, in fact, independent dimensions, and both must be considered for a comprehensive evaluation of argumentative proof. Organization, style, and language usage are not related to methods of reasoning or rationality, Also, body rhetoric or civil disobedience (forms of nonverbal communication) are necessarily limited in presentation of proof, but the arguments they support are not necessarily irrational in themselves. Rational arguments are those that have sound, logical support for their claims, regardless of the verbal or nonverbal methods of presentation. (RN)

Variables that affect the deductive reasoning of adult students are isolated and relevant literature reviewed in order to facilitate the design of a reliable measurement instrument. The relationships of previous instruction, cultural background, occupation, intelligence, sex, and reasoning habits to test scores of examinees are discussed. Studies of the effect on examinees of argument format, use of logical connectives, language inconsistencies, item difficulty levels, abstractness, and argumentative content are reviewed. Implications of this literature review are that future deductive reasoning ability measurement devices should a) include provisions for assessing decisions involving both valid and invalid principles of reasoning; b) measure decisions for each structural type of logical argument; c) utilize premises which are properly qualified, consistent with generally accepted facts, and constructed of neutral components; d) utilize standardized logical connectives; and e) measure the emotional effect of arguments on respondees. An 11 page bibliography is included. (HMD)

This document, which consists of three parts and a summary, surveys a) the structure of theoretical systems, b) the functions of theoretical systems, and c) the formal logical methods of the theoretical scientist in order to find approaches to educational research. Emphasis throughout is placed on the discrimination of concepts-by-intuition from concepts-by-postulation. Part I is a discussion of the parts of a theoretical system including primitives, concepts, postulates, thoerems, and hypotheses. Part II indicates that the primary functions of a theoretical system are to predict what kinds of data are needed to solve a problem and whether the data obtained are reasonable. In part II formal logical methods of the theoretical scientist are stated, including a) method of definition, b) method of hypothesis, c) method of espistemic correlation, and d) method for verifying theories. Also described in this section are three methods of proof a) sentence reasoning, b) indirect proof, and c) class reasoning. The author concludes the summary with two approaches to educational research. Tables and a three-page bibliography are included. (PD)

Forty-four education and 44 dental students were administered a 30-item syllogism test containing five syllogic forms six times repeated in three different content forms--technical dental terms, common dental terms, and content-free (letters). Data were analyzed using a two-factor with repeated measures on one factor design. It was found that dental students did not score differently than education students. However, content-free syllogisms were significantly less difficult to solve than technical or common content syllogisms. There were no interaction effects between subject group and content type. (Author)

Four-hundred and nine students (grades 8, 10, 12 and 14) were given logical syllogism problems of the form "If p...then q" along with tests of dogmatism and intolerance of ambiguity. Aptitude scores were also obtained. Major results indicated that expressed dogmatism and intolerance of ambiguity were negatively correlated with syllogistic reasoning for subjects in each grade, although general aptitude accounted for most of the variance. All 14th graders were significantly less dogmatic and more tolerant of ambiguity, but there was no consistent developmental trend across the other grades. The Dogmatism Scale, Intolerance of Ambiguity Scales and the Deductive Reasoning Test used in this study are contained in the Appendix. (Author/MLP)

This paper reviews the literature concerning the development of deductive reasoning, emphasizing the verbal form of the arguments involved in the reasoning. Empirical research is grouped under the heading: assessment studies, critical thinking, instructional studies, and logic and proof. A conceptual framework is developed and a section on errors in deductive reasoning is presented. Also included is a discussion of the "state of the art" and some suggestions for future research. (Author/LS)

Logical inference tasks were presented to 112 police officers. Two logical forms were employed, converse and contrapositive. Three levels of activation were identified by a Q-Sort and incorporated into the design. A third factor was also considered, four styles of negative. Results of 24 items were analyzed by means of sign tests. Converse tasks were found to be easier than contrapositive tasks. Increased activation improved performance on the converse tasks but seemed to interfere with performance on the more difficult contrapositive tasks. Of special interest was the finding that contrapositive tasks with more negatives were easier than those with fewer negatives. (LS)

Can the legal system use the method applied by science, or is it a science itself? Consideration of this question is the topic of this essay. (Author/PG)

The goal of this study was to investigate improvement in the usage of equivalence and order relations under specified instructional conditions. Forty-eight upper middle class kindergarten children were given a 14-session pretreatment designed to define two equivalence and four order relations of length and matching, followed by tests of conservation and transitivity. On the basis of the transitivity test scores, the children were then assigned by matched pairs to two treatments: a Classification Treatment in which an object was considered as representing a collection of like objects, and a Standard Treatment in which no such assumption was made. Posttests of conservation, transitivity, and use of the asymmetric property were then given. Analysis by sign test and contingency tables showed that both treatments were effective but not significantly different. No evidence was found that acquisition of matching relations preceded acquisition of length relations. Also, possession of transitivity appeared unstable and unrelated to conservation. (MM)

A PRESENTATION WAS MADE OF THE ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR THAT IS REQUIRED AS A FIRST STEP IN THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING PROCEDURES AND MATERIALS FOR "DISCOVERY LEARNING." TEACHING BY THE DISCOVERY METHOD IS DESCRIBED AS REQUIRING THAT A MINIMUM OF STRUCTURED INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCE BE IMPOSED TO ALLOW THE CHILD TO (1) LEARN BY DISCOVERY AND (2) LEARN TO DISCOVER. THE KINDS OF SEQUENCES THAT COULD BE USED WERE GROUPED AS (1) INDUCTIVE SEQUENCES IN WHICH A RULE WOULD BE PRESENTED BEFORE THE EXAMPLES, AND (2) TRIAL-AND-ERROR LEARNING SEQUENCES WHICH WOULD REQUIRE THAT STUDENTS DISCOVER THINGS FOR THEMSELVES. THE INCOMPATIBILITY BETWEEN THIS SELF-DISCOVERY PROCESS AND ERROR MINIMIZATION WAS ALSO DISCUSSED. CONCLUSIONS WERE (1) "LEARNING-BY-DISCOVERY" APPEARS TO INVOLVE NOT ONLY THE PROPERTIES OF INDUCTION AND ERRORFUL LEARNING, BUT ALSO INTERACTIVE EFFECTS WITH TASK PROPERTIES, AND (2) INTERESTING LEADS FOR STUDYING "LEARNING-TO-DISCOVER" MAY BE FOUND IN OPERANT ANALYSIS, COGNITIVE SIMULATION, AND STUDIES OF EXPLORATORY DRIVE. (AL)

This document presents a series of exercises designed to help elementary school children develop skills in mathematics and logic. By means of stories, games, questions, and illustrations, the first set of exercises presents the idea of number systems with bases other than 10. Similar means are used to explain the concept of exponents and to teach the children certain logical relationships. For report AM-1, see FL 003 289. (VM)

This volume contains the papers presented at a workshop which brought together authorities from several different disciplines, each working in the area of natural language analysis, to participate in intensive, technical discussions of the issues involved in developing adequate grammars and semantics of natural languages. The disciplines represented were linguistics, philosophy, and psychology. Introductory remarks provide details on workshop procedures and participants. The 19 papers presented at the workshop are included in the main part of the document. [Not available in hard copy due to marginal legibility of original document.] (VM)

The University of Iowa Computer Center obtained the ERIC data base on March 15, 1971. In the early stages, the files were reduced in size by eliminating some of the fields, and the program was modified to allow a maximum of 100 hits per search request. This manual is intended to aid the new users during the system's first year of operation. It contains a detailed description of the three components in a search element: (1) preparation of input descriptors, (2) logical operators, and (3) contextual operators. (SJ)

Search of the Library Information Collection (SLIC) is a relatively inexpensive program for searching the ERIC files. The concepts of the inverted file used by the SLIC programs has reduced the overhead required in previous systems thereby decreasing operating costs and loss of valuable research time. The amount of main storage required is small. The system is written in BAL for an IBM 360/370. The programs are self-relocatable and require 32K of main storage. The major part of this manual is concerned with program operations and setup. There is a description of each program and its required input for the person responsible for the data base. All messages issued by the program are listed with the appropriate response for each. (Author/SJ)

Programmed materials presenting twelve mathematical concepts were developed to investigate disjunctive concept learning relative to four teaching strategies involving characterization and exemplification (CEC, EC, CE, ECE). Prospective elementary teachers in an undergraduate mathematics course were randomly assigned to one of eight treatment programs after stratification according to mental ability. Achievement tests designed to test concept attainment at the levels of Knowledge and Comprehension (Level 1), Application (Level 2), and Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation (Level 3) yielded the following results: (1) upper ability groups did significantly better than low ability groups; and (2) exemplar moves were more effective than non-exemplar moves for Level 1 performance, but the CEC strategy was better than ECE for Levels 2 and 3. No meaningful interactions were found. (Author/JG)

This study examined the effects of a specified set of activities on the ability of educable mentally retarded (EMR) children to use the transitive property and conserve the three relations "same number as,""more than," and "fewer than." Thirteen EMR students, aged 12 to 15, were taught eleven lessons on establishing and conserving these relations, and on the use of the transitive property. Three tests were given as pretests and readministered later as posttests and retention tests. Analyses of numbers reaching criterion showed that significant improvement occurred during the instructional period and was maintained thereafter. (MM)

This study examined the effect of various instructional conditions on the ability of young children to form classes and to recognize order and equivalence relations. Children from four kindergarten and four first grade classes were first classified by two levels of IQ and then randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, giving a 2 x 2 x 2 design. The experimental group received 17 lessons on conjunction, disjunction, negation, and selected mathematical relations, designed to help the children learn to form classes, to form intersections, unions, and complements of classes, and to recognize relations between classes and class elements. The posttests consisted of five achievement tests and four transfer tests, and the scores were analyzed by univariate and multivariate analysis of variance. The results showed that the children were able to learn the skills taught, and that some transfer to related skills occurred. The main effects of treatment and IQ were highly significant on all tests, but grade level was not significant. Various implications for early schooling are presented. (MM)

This thesis describes a method for teaching English composition, with the parallel development of comprehension skills, to students in the Middle East Technical University. A survey of techniques for teaching English composition to foreign students is provided along with a discussion of the steps usually followed in writing instruction. The theoretical aspects of writing are considered as are the various types of discourse. Ideas on teaching each type of discourse are presented. The author applies a theory of discourse to composition instruction, suggesting activities and a program outline for elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels. Typical examples of lesson plans for the intermediate level are included. A bibliography is provided. (VM)

The objective of this study is to identify some of the structural features of an elementary logic curriculum which affect logic problem difficulty. The system under review is a computer-based logic instructional system (LIS) at Stanford University. Four modes of problem presentation--multiple-choice, truth-analysis, counterexample, and derive--are described. Various empirical measures of problem difficulty and measures of problem structure (including structural variables, standard proof variables, and sequential variables) are considered. The performance of college students using the system is analyzed, and variables which contribute to the difficulty of a problem are identified. (JK)

The volume of working papers includes eight papers describing current theory and research in linguistics and in semantics and syntax. The following articles are in the collection: "The Grammar of Emotive and Exclamatory Sentences in English,""Linguistics as Chemistry: The Substance Theory of Semantic Primes,""On Perceptual and Grammatical Constraints,""On Invited Inferences,""Remarks on Directionality" (concerning the relationships among various levels of grammatical description), "Evidence" (concerning the syntactic properties of verbs such as think, believe, assume, suppose, anticipate), "How Come and What For," and "In a Manner of Speaking" (concerning English verbs referring to intended acts of communication). Titles of working papers appearing in previous collections are provided. (VM)

An interactive computer-assisted system for teaching elementary logic is described, which was designed to handle formalizations of first-order theories suitable for presentation in a computer-assisted instruction environment. The system provides tools with which the user can develop and then study a nonlogical axiomatic theory along whatever lines he specifies. These tools include a proof-checking program that allows the user to construct derivations by taking advantage of the theorem-proving capabilities of the computer. Results of preliminary investigations using this computer-assisted teaching system in a manner designed to give the student greater control over the organization of his curriculum are summarized, and initial studies on the uses of mechanical theorem provers in teaching about proof construction are outlined. (Author/RH)

The major objective of this study was to determine the relationship between the frequency of use of the language of conditional logic by mathematics teachers and students' conditional reasoning ability. Other objectives were to determine the relationship between student mathematical ability and conditional reasoning ability and the effectiveness of quantifying teacher verbal behavior with respect to time for speaking. Twenty teachers of seventh grade mathematics were audio-taped for five classes each. Those ranked as the top five (TWHR) and the lowest five (TWLR) in the frequency of conditional moves were used to identify student subjects for the testing of hypotheses. The students were administered the "Cornell Conditional Reasoning Test" at the beginning and end of the semester. The TWHR students out-performed TWLR students on the total test, on suggestive content items, on negation items, and on the principle "p only if q, not q : not p." Mathematical ability was found to be highly correlated with the three fallacy principles of denying the antecedent, asserting the consequent, and asserting the converse, and with the total test. No interaction of mathematical ability and teacher frequency of conditional moves was found. The length of time for speaking was not closely related to the length of the transcription. Results indicate that future studies of adventitious learning could be useful to educational practices. (Author/JM)

The primary aim of these five technical papers is to indicate aspects of proof theory which may be of use in the study of non-numerical computing. The three main papers are entitled: "Checking of Computer Programs;""Consistency Proofs and Programs for Translators;" and "Experiments with Computers on the Complexity of Non-numerical computations." The author shows that many theorems on computability in traditional metamathematics are of little use to the computer scientist because they do not lead to feasible algorithms. He also suggests alternative approaches to proof theory which would be of greater applicability. (MM)

A new approach to the development of strategies and procedures for rational resolution of value conflicts is described and illustrated. Strategies are based on 6 tasks for meeting the standards for a rational value judgment discussed by Jerrold Coombs (1971). The 6 tasks involve reducing differences in each of the following: the interpretation of the value issue, the purported facts assembled, the assessed truth of purported facts, the relevance of facts, tentative value judgments, and testing the acceptability of value principles. Procedures are formulated on the basis of 3 sets of principles: logical, such as analyzing value conflict into its logical components; procedural, such as organizing sources of conflict according to the kind of logical component and how they contribute to the complexity of the conflict; and psychological, such as breaking larger conflicts into smaller conflicts and resolving smaller conflicts first. In tests of both the approach to strategies and the procedure, results were as follows: (1) behavior on the 6 tasks followed a complex pattern, rather than occuring in a simple logical order; (2) participants discussed a variety of alternative plans, rather than just the initial plans on which there was conflict; and (3) the emphasis on moral and economic concerns was changed somewhat. (Author)

This document, the first in a series called "Actualizacion Linguistica," seeks to establish the bases for testing a new methodology for teaching Spanish to Colombia beginning at the preschool and primary levels. The methodology initially uses a system of "logic blocks" of differing size, color, shape, and weight to devise games designed to develop the child's sense of logic and lead him to more complex mental processes and to abstraction through the observation of concrete objects. The logic games, carried over to the Spanish class, teach the child to use the logical tools necessary for thinking about and organizing speech and provide the child with linguistic knowledge in a systematic way, with the assurance that such knowledge is useful. Examples of learning activities based on this method are also described. A bibliography is included. (VM)

This document, based on mathematical research conducted by the Instituto Colombiano de Pedagogia, is the first in a series of scheduled publications designed to report recent findings to teachers and to offer new methodological guidelines in teaching math. This document suggests elementary-level learning activities for helping the students develop thinking processes and powers of generalization and abstraction through the observation of concrete objects. The materials used initially are sets of "logic blocks" of various sizes, colors, shapes, and weights. The learning activities seek to develop a sense of logic and spatial organization. The document is not intended as a textbook but rather as a report to bring elementary school mathematics teachers up to date on current ideas. (VM)

This document suggests learning activities for kindergarten children to develop skills of basic reasoning and numerical calculation that the children will be using throughout life. This teacher's guide provides a list of games and activities and discusses the relationship between the games and their themes and their intended educational objectives. The games begin with basic identification problems and grow in complexity through working with numbers with different bases and learning and writing digits to developing the tools necessary for introducing addition. (VM)

This paper begins with a brief review of research trends in the area of organization and memory. A discussion in them presented their relevance to the study of children's processing abilities, and the suggestion is presented of a possible useful tool in the application of knowledge about information processing to the educational experience of the child. While the author's major interest is in the field of learning in handicapped children, it is suggested that young normal children may also benefit from such applications. The measurement tool described is The Sampling Organizational and Recall Through Strategies (S.O.R.T.S.) test. It has been designed to diagnose specific levels of spontaneous grouping strategy generation in such a way as to predict an appropriate educational intervention to enhance the use of conceptual strategies. The procedure for administering and scoring the test is described, in addition to a discussion of test interpretation. (BW/Author)

An investigation of student proof behavior in a complex computer-assisted instruction (CAI) setting is presented. Using 125 logic derivation problems, the responses of 23 students, enrolled in the Stanford Logic-Instructional System, were evaluated to determine the amount of variation occurring in the structure of their proofs. By assigning the student proofs to equivalence classes the investigation indicated that there was relatively little variability in the earliest problems and considerable variability in the latter. Regression analysis revealed that the structural complexity of the problems were a good predictor of the amount of variation in the proofs. In general, the author concluded, the most significant kinds of variability depend on the number and type of rules that are available when the proof is done. The attempt to identify patterns of proof behavior that characterized groups of students failed due to the non-heterogeneity of the logic problems. (MC)

Two experiments investigated developmental aspects of the two components of scientific reasoning: induction and deduction. In the first experiment, 98 subjects, ages 5 through 11, inductively identified four silhouetted pictures by removing, one at a time and in any sequence, as few covering pieces as possible. Results indicated that: (a) the ability to utilize incomplete information improved with increased age, but with a performance plateau between ages 8 and 11; and (b) the ability to expose information improved with age while the number of verbalized hypotheses remained relatively constant. In the second experiment, 120 subjects, ages 9 through 14, either utilized their own (Master) exposure sequence or followed (slaved) that of an age, sex, and IQ paired subject to inductively identify six, 36-cell symmetrical patterns of X's and 0's. Deductive cell predictions improved with increased age and were similarly accurate for both subject groups. For pattern inductions, which also improved with increased age, slaved subjects generally hypothesized earlier, more often, and more correctly with less information than did master subjects. Results are analyzed from cognitive and developmental orientations, and implications are offered for research and educational practices. (Author)