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The difference between force applied to anterior teeth and force applied to posterior teeth has been calculated from ten cephalometric radiographs and ten human mandibles. In the study utilizing cephalometric radiographs, the cuspid would receive an average of 67 per cent of the force applied to the second molar. In the study of human mandibles, the cuspid would receive an average of 65 per cent of the force applied to the second molar with the same muscle contractile force.

The decision admit a disturbed adolescent to a mental hospital is all too often made by a hard-pressed duty psychiatrist, late in the day, but early in his training. The effects of this decision may well reverberate down the generations. At the Unit for younger adolescents at Hill End Hospital, St. Albans, Hertfordshire, England (5), the family, not the psychiatrist, makes the decision. This approach is based on the observation that when families eject their youngsters, parental authority is often disintegrating. Referral for admission provides a golden opportunity, not only for reversing the ejection process, but also for forging, on the anvil of a profoundly important decision, a more viable family authority structure. Therapeutic leverage is made available at the very heart of the family problem.

The Education Professions Development Act was passed in 1967. The need to "do something" about teachers and teacher training became apparent to federal planners in the post-Sputnik furor. This realization resulted in a great rush to establish institutes for teachers under the National Defense Education Act and under the auspices of the National Science Foundation. The manpower problem was again dramatized after the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, which provided large amounts of federal money to help the schools. Federal policy makers and educators in the field typically defined the "manpower problem" as both quantitative (e.g., not enough teachers of physics) and qualitative (e.g., experienced teachers need upgrading in their matter knowledge or in their ability to teach inner city children ). In late 1966, Commissioner of Education Harold Howe II created a task force on educational manpower which concluded that new legislation for teacher training was needed because: 1) there was a teacher shortage; 2) existing teacher training authorities were scattered, excessively categorical, and inflexible; 3) there was no mechanism for the assessment of teacher needs; and 4) the existing program provided little leverage for encouraging changes in conventional practices in training institutions or schools. A bill designed to address these problems was drafted; however, a compromise decision was made not to seek replacement of all of the existing educational manpower programs. The bill passed on June 30, 1967, included sev

Go-between process is a triadic-based theory and technique of family therapy in which the therapist treats pathogenic relating among family members by alternately applying himself in two roles: (1) in that of go-between and (2) in that of side-taker. The family therapist cannot avoid side-taking; judiciously applied, it is a powerful source of therapeutic leverage.

Journal of Marketing, Vol. 29 (January, 1965), pp. 14-17. HE PHYSICAL spot at which the customer makes his purchase-the point-of-sale-is of transcending significance. It is at this location that the culmination, successful or otherwise, of all prior advertising and selling effort occurs. This is the last time to appeal to the customer, the moment at which the final decision is made and acted upon. Since the point-of-purchase is the "test tube" in which the purchase reaction occurs, it represents the final opportunity to enter into or influence the reaction. Further, it is often the time of greatest influence because it represents the most propitious moment: the customer is now ready to buy. This immediacy, coupled with the fact that the customer does not have an opportunity to forget the seller's promotional message, increases the leverage and importance of the point-of-purchase. This is the critical point; in a sense, all previous marketing endeavors function only to precondition the customer for this moment. As an additive factor, in many cases the purchaser's choice of purchase location itself plays an important part in governing what is purchased. For example, the decision to go to Montgomery Ward & Co. for a refrigerator automatically excludes all non-Ward brands of refrigerators. Similarly, if a customer turns to the Yellow Pages (which in a sense then becomes the point-of-purchase) specifically to choose a Chinese restaurant, he automatically eliminates from consideration the Chinese restaurants that are not listed.

In addressing today's difficult crime control problems, the focus should not be on a set of "tough" or "soft" prescriptions but rather on crime control that works. Indeed, serious question exists about the nation's capacity and re sources, even if we so desired, to achieve "tough crime control" in significant degree—that is, to substantially increase ap prehension and conviction rates and intensify the severity and length of sentences and imprisonment. It appears also that the most critical leverage point for crime reduction may lie in the correction of offenders and redirection of repeaters away from criminal behavior. Here, the "tough" or punitive ap proach is a high-cost, low-yield alternative. It offers much less potential than the "softer" regime of training, education, job placement, counseling, and community reacceptance, designed to equip offenders for a productive, law-observing role in the society to which virtually all will return.

The decade ahead is likely to witness a diminished capacity by the protagonist powers to control the universalization of that nuclear technology most suited to eventual military purposes. The fast-breeder reactor and centrifuge-enrichment, two nuclear developments on the threshold of commercial feasibility, are the most foreboding. They would provide, as by-products of the generation of electricity, two fissionable materials used in making nuclear weapons: plutonium and enriched uranium. This technology will be developed by industrial countries, like Germany and Japan, but it could be exported to countries in the Third World, where it is fervently believed to be the key to economic development. The prospects that the Soviet Union and the United States will effectively curb the spread of this technology seem poor because mutually reinforcing economic, status, and security incentives will undermine the diplomatic leverage of the superpowers and lead to relaxed safeguards. Thus, even a Nonproliferation Treaty ratified by most threshold and Third World countries would not prevent the eventual formation of a base for nuclear technology amounting to a real military option in many developing countries.

Studies which relate to decisions affecting the course of possible military operations in the distant future face the familiar pitfalls of operations research in a particularly aggravated form, due principally to the broad context in which such decisions typically appear. This paper discusses means for avoiding undesirable suboptimization, for including the effects of feedback and competition, and for introducing the effect of significant constraints when choosing criteria on which to base long-range planning decisions. Several new measures of merit are presented which emphasize the feature of “R and D” leverage over potential enemy countermeasure developments. For decisions affecting possible near-term military operations, it is suggested that operations-research studies can profitably emphasize the optimization of (a) deployment of existing forces, (b) military decision-making processes. These near-term problems, like their long-term counterparts, must also be studied with reference to future goals.

The purpose of this study is to measure the effect of incumbency on the vote division in elections for the United States House of Representatives. It is commonly assumed that being an incumbent offers a considerable advantage to the congressional candidate. The incumbent candidate can use his office to do favors for individual constituents, increase his visibility among the general public, and generate additional financial support for future campaigns. Presumably this leverage of incumbency offers an electoral advantage sufficiently large to make it quite difficult for an incumbent to be defeated in a general election.' Evidence of an incumbency advantage in House elections can be drawn from studies by Milton Cummings and indirectly from studies by Donald Stokes and Warren Miller and by Charles 0. Jones. Cummings, analyzing data from each Presidential election year over a forty-four year period, compared the success rate of incumbent candidates and nonincumbent candidates when the district presidential vote is held constant as a control for partisan loyalties. He found that incumbents are much more likely to win elections than their counterpart nonincumbents from districts with similar presidential voting.2 Stokes and Miller's survey demonstrates that incumbents are more frequently recognized by their constituents than nonincumbents are, and that voters are more likely to support a congressional candidate whose name they recognize. Inferentially, then, the increased visibility of the incumbent appears to give the incumbent an advantage at the polls.3 Jones' data, based on four congressional elections, indicates that

"It appears that sharpening the instructional skills of teachers, improving the content of in structional materials, and altering the con straining climate in which instruction takes place are points of leverage for the improve ment of civics instruction. Emphasis must shift from hortatory pronouncements about the glories of inquiry-oriented civics instruction to the creation of conditions that make such in struction possible on a wide scale."

This paper is concerned with the phenomenon of the prison work stoppage. It discusses the conditions which make prison strikes possible and invokes a general theory of strike action to account for the prevalence of prison strikes. In addition, it focusses on a particular, successful prison work stoppage in Massachusetts and analyzes both the extent to which it was organized and the nature of its leverage.

The conjoint session in the treatment of persons who are married is designed to use the intense emotional feelings that exist between the partners. The situation provides transference, regressive and defensive phenomena that are readily available for therapeutic utilization. Treatment is essentially for one or both partners, secondarily for the marriage. As the conjoint session epitomizes the problems that arise when a therapist undertakes to treat both marital partners by any method, this type of session was discussed in some detail. The demands on the therapist in conjoint therapy are great. He is the witness of irrational and hostile feelings which frequently exceed in intensity those that emerge in individual psychotherapy or analysis. There is a greater amount of emotional interplay than may occur in either individual or group therapy. It becomes very easy to identify with one marriage partner against the other and thus reduce or eliminate the therapist's value to both persons in the marriage. However, the opportunity presented to the marriage partners in this triadic setting is a valuable one. The therapeutic leverage afforded by the dynamics of the marriage relationship can immeasurably increase the chances of helping both individuals as well as their marital relationship.

Hypnosis has an important, though not indispensable, role in the practice of behavior therapy. When properly used, it can add leverage to treatment and shorten treatment time. The basic approach to the patient is described, and various hypnotic techniques discussed.

Although we have a large and flexible transportation capacity in our economy, it is becoming inefficient and overly costly through misallocation and wasteful use of national resources. Private carriage of one's own goods and person survives and grows to a major degree because current public policy and regulation regarding common carriers inhibit their power to compete. At the same time, private carriage is crowding the capacity of its right of way and is using its vehicular units inefficiently. The current pattern of public transportation regulation tends to resist market entry and exit— that is, to resist market forces which shift resource allocation or investment from one mode of carriage or transportation enterprise to another. The principal control device is minimum-price regulation. Exempt, private, or common carrier interests in the market have relied on this aspect of public regulation and have vested, in varying degrees. Their political leverage is beginning to equal the economic weight of their investment and services, and, in consequence, improvement of transportation resource allocation has become in large measure a problem solvable only by the legislature and not by transportation management or by the forces of the free market.

Most of the literature on Title I of ESEA focuses either on activities at the federal level—the passage and early administration of the law—or at the local level—the quality of programs or alleged abuses in using Title I funds. Little attention has been paid to the intergovernmental problems of implementing education reform in a federal system. In this article, the author examines the interaction between the different levels of government concerning Title I, focusing mainly on the program's management and on specific federal efforts to issue strong guidelines. The discussion reveals the political and bureaucratic obstacles which constrain federal efforts to redirect local priorities and explores the notion of countervailing local power as a way for the poor to gain greater leverage in the program's operation.

China's ability to mobilize and deploy military power in the 1970s will be determined largely by domestic political, economic, and military trends. A continuing political struggle for authority between central and regional power groups is not likely to undermine significantly the dominance of the Shenyang, Peking, Nanking, and Canton Military Regions, nor alter the fact of a coalition government—presently under the guidance of Chou En-lai. Economic trends toward increased regional self-interest and self-sufficiency may be arrested in part by the efforts of central authority to retain control over the most important sectors of the military industrial mobilization base. To some degree, Chinese central leaders may be able to import advanced technology with which to improve their leverage over domestic adversaries. However, continued emphasis on agriculture and a shortage of investment resources may be expected to severely constrain budgetary resources available for either imports or weapons development. The role of the military in society is likely to remain significant, although it seems clear that Chou En-lai and others wish to reduce their influence over the civil polity. All military leaders, with the exception of a minority concerned with nuclear weapons, may be expected to retain a primary interest in internal security problems, namely, the problem of stability. Thus, because such problems require conventional rather than nuclear weapons, those leaders are likely to alter the mix of resource allocations to weapons in favor of a better balance between the two systems. Strategic defense rather than offensive capability, is likely to retain first priority.

(1950). Individual Differences in Foot Leverage in Relation to Jumping Performance. Research Quarterly. American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation: Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 11-19.

In this systems approach to the syndrome of school refusal, the author illustrates how a unifying theory can be applied to a specific clinical problem in psychiatry. The approach allows for an assessment of the contributions by various levels of the system to the production of the school-phobic child: the child himself (including neurological and psychological sublevels), the family, school, community, and broad societal patterns. Following this assessment, the clinician can choose those levels or interfaces that offer the best possibility of leverage for change.

Mercer and Morgan provide several valid criticisms of a previous analysis on political influence and water rates. More sophisticated statistical analyses may be justified given the high degree of interdependence among regulated firm variables. Theoretically, there are numerous measures of political activity superior to the one employed in the original analysis; however, data unavailability precludes their use. A better (and yet practical) measure of consumer leverage may be relative dominance by a specific political party. Until relatively easy access is obtained to municipal election data, the possible political variables that can be employed in more elegant analyses are few in number, and each has theoretical limitations.

One observation one might readily make about some optical systems of recent manufacture is that their imagery performance is appreciably superior to that obtainable from outwardly similar designs originating in the 1960's. Many camera buffs for example, have had the recent experience of acquiring a varifocal (zoom) lens which replaces (and possibly out-performs) anywhere from two to four of the fixed focus lenses purchased only a few years ago. Though it is not appropriate for the purposes of this presentation to delve into the specifics of the pertinent performance criteria, it is clear to most lens designers that the improvements in performance have oc-curred for several reasons. In addition to the fact that the level of sophistication of the average designer has probably increased, the software currently available is certainly more versatile and dependable than that of years past. It is also true that many modern optical systems are sufficiently complex (and expensive) that designers are, in some cases, becoming less reluctant to take advantage of the extra degrees of freedom afforded through use of the more exotic glasses, and even aspheric surfaces. Ever increasing availability of awesome computing power at reasonable prices has probably been at the real root of the dramatic performance improvements, however. It is probably safe to guess that the average lens design specialist today employs roughly ten times the computing leverage as might have been applied only five to seven years ago.

After stating the premises about the marriage relationship, the strategic and practical goals of a conjoint treatment are described. Dynamics of transference-countertransference are conceptualized, and techniques of interpretation set forth. The advantages of having primary data about the marriage, speed in dealing with critical issues, economy of therapist's time and patient's resources, and the therapeutic leverage afforded by the method provide exciting challenges to psychotherapeutic theory and methodology. Definitive indications and contraindications for its use may not yet be stated.

The weight, complexities, and expense of the suspension gallows and its table clamp have long presented a technical, psychological, and man-power difficulty.1This has resulted in making use of the Lynch suspension apparatus more rare and has tended to confine its use to the larger institutions where a team of trained personnel has been developed to handle daily, weekly, or frequent cases. The situation has been hard on the occasional operator who, though well enough qualified to do this type of work, lacked the equipment or the team necessary to perform smoothly. This new device is therefore offered to help solve this problem.2 Since the development of the leverage principle in laryngoscopy,3the leverage principle has made the exposure of the anterior commissure much easier. Such exposure now depends upon the power of the fulcrum and leverage of a worm and sprocket gear system rather than upon

Few insurgencies have been won or lost by large, decisive military battles. More commonly, insurgencies are won by a combination of military and political means. Much of the political leverage involved in such settlements is derived from effective psychological operations, which have structured the environment necessary for a political solution. One objective of psychological operations is to create social disorganization and conditions of uncertainty. The resultant unrest and confusion are used as a cover to carry out underground operations. A characteristic of this kind of social confusion is a condition of general apathy among a large segment of the populace and an unwillingness to help either side. This indifference plays into the hands of the underground: apathetic people do not cooperate by supporting government programs and they seldom volunteer the intelligence information necessary for detecting underground elements and operations. A second objective of psychological operations is the creation of doubt and suspicion of government and government officials. This focuses attention and grievances on the ineffectiveness of government. A third and crucial objective of psychological operations is to crystallize attitudes and organize dissident elements to resist government action and policies.

Perhaps the most ignored yet among the most vital resources in the community are the indigenous talents of members of the ethnic minority groups (black Americans, Spanish surname Americans, Indian Americans) and women. Today only a very limited number of persons from these groups have the professional training and experience to assume professional leadership in the geophysical sciences and related fields. This fact presents community leaders, educational institutions, and professional societies with a crucial problem-how to develop and utilize the skills of a larger corps of minority specialists in the geophysical professions. Hence the critical question that faces the AGU Committee on Minorities is How can the American Geophysical Union use its resources, most of which are intellectual, with the greatest leverage to increase minority participation in the geophysical sciences both in the short term and over the next generation?

BERNARD BAILYN's famous attempt of a decade ago to redefine the scope of educational history has rightly been much applauded ever since, but it has not been subjected to enough careful scrutiny. Bailyn was appalled by what he perceived to be the narrow character of educational history as it had long been written by men lacking in historical vision or imagination. To counter such narrowness, he proposed, in a widely quoted dictum, that one think of education "not only as formal pedagogy but as the entire process by which a culture transmits itself across the generations," and that one see education "in its elaborate, intricate involvements with the rest of society," noting "its shifting functions, meanings, and purposes." (i) When Bailyn's dictum was uttered, it sent an enormous gust of fresh air across this particular corner of the scholarly landscape. It lent encouragement to researchers who were anxious to integrate the study of educational history with all that seemed vital in the social sciences. It gave important leverage to younger, more adventurous spirits who were struggling, presumably, against somnolent establishments in departments of education throughout the United States. Bailyn's words seemed to carry the promise that what had hitherto been considered one of the most arid fields of inquiry might suddenly be transformed into one of the freshest and most exciting. In creating this impression, perhaps more important than anything Bailyn said was the very fact that he had taken the trouble to say it-that is, a distinguished historian had chosen bold

Over the last ten years, we have kept an eye on the possible role of technology and of a different mix of health professionals on the delivery of personal health services. Seven years ago we decided that the day of technology had not arrived and we elected to diversify the manpower mix. This led to the development of the Duke physician's assistant or associate program. We never lost our interest in the machines, however, and today we believe their time has come. We are on the brink of a major technological breakthrough in the practice of complex medicine. This technological revolution will change the educational patterns in medical schools, will have far-reaching effects on patterns of practice in the medical centers, and will give the medical centers the leverage in community hospitals to set up a reasonable regionalization program. Before proceeding with our thesis, we must acknowledge that many prophets

I have been following with a great deal of interest what is being said regarding the Sluder tonsillotome and method of removing the faucial tonsils. So much of it has been commendatory and perhaps deservedly so, that it is with considerable hesitation that I raise any question either with regard to the aptitude of the instrument, or the efficiency of the Sluder technic. The way in which some surgeons have taken up this instrument and this special method makes one think that the operative procedures of these men in tonsillectomy during their previous practice must have been very unsatisfactory. The Sluder instrument is similar to the old McKenzie tonsillotome, modified in a few respects and so constructed as to be used in reverse position. This undoubtedly gives it a decided advantage over the older instrument, as its facility for engaging the tonsil is increased, a greater leverage is gained, and

Educational structure in the United States is changing under the impact of modern economic, demographic and political forces that generate national interests and condition the self-interest of colleges and school systems. With control formally located in state and local units, much of the alteration takes the form of influence exerted from the center through voluntary relations among public agencies and private groups. The relations that emerged around the Physical Science Study Committee formed a new pattern in which action is concerted by the leverage of money and prestige and the limited confluence of independent interests. Other schemes are also developing rapidly, e.g., the federation of private colleges, in which co-operation is brought about by the search for competitive advantage. These patterns of partial linkage can be compared with bureaucratic processes to move toward a theory of confederative organization. This theory will connect with or become part of a theory of influence that has thus far largely developed in the study of politics. Burton R. Clark is research sociologist at the Center for the Study of Higher Education and professor of education at the University of California, Berkeley.

English Learners as a student population are increasing in US Schools and migrating to new areas. A review of research shows that teachers are underprepared to meet the unique linguistic and cultural needs and leverage the strengths of this student population. This memo explores the problem space, reviews relevant research and current practices in pre-service education and in-service professional development. Guiding the research and current practices are two essential questions: Is this preparation method effective in changing teacher practice and improving student outcomes? Is this method permeating the educational sphere enough to produce change? The memo details a three prong solution to addressing the teacher preparation gap and concludes by discussing limitations of the memo and approach.