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Summary The author spent some years investigating the Iron Age of southern Zambia, while employed as Keeper of Prehistory at the Livingstone Museum. He has recently been appointed Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Northern Illinois University. The Early Iron Age village site at Kabondo Kumbo represents a subsistence settlement of the late first millennium A.D. In addition to a relatively rich material culture and ceramic inventory, excavation uncovered a series of hut sites, one of which retained sufficient of the wall posts to allow description of a sub-rectangular poler-and-daga structure, two metres square. Abundant evidence of iron-smelting was discovered and there may have been an open bowl bloomery furnace. Kabondo Kumbo fits well into the sequence of Early Iron Age villages known from the Victoria Falls region and it is possible to reconstruct a fairly complete picture of the related culture-history for this part of Zambia. A material culture based upon a simple technology in mixed-agricultura...

Mrs Barbara Ottaway has proposed that the interquartile range of the radiocarbon dates available for a given industry will provide an estimate of the floruit of that industry. The present paper examines some four hundred radiocarbon dates which have so far been processed from Iron Age sites in Bantu Africa, and concludes that the intersextile range provides a more accurate approximation for the floruit of individual industries than does the interquartile range. This approach permits the presentation of a more precise inter-regional synthesis of Iron Age chronology than has previously been attempted. It is demonstrated that the earliest manifestations of the Early Iron Age Industrial Complex are in East Africa. Further to the south, two distinct streams of the Early Iron Age are recognized: that in the eastern part of the sub-continent had penetrated as far to the south as the Transvaal some centuries before the western stream spread into what is now Zambia. The inception of the later Iron Age, around the eleventh century A.D., is shown to have been at least as rapid as was that of the Early Iron Age.In view of the greater precision which the above methodology imparts to the radiocarbon-based chronology, a brief discussion is presented of the calibrations which dendrochronological studies provide between radiocarbon ages and calendar ages. It is concluded that, for the period of the sub-Saharan African Iron Age, the corrections which are called for are minor in comparison with the standard errors of individual radiocarbon dates; and the application of such calibrations to Iron Age dates is not recommended.

SummaryThe excavations of 1971 concluded the eleven-year programme begun in 1961. Eight sites were investigated in a season whose main emphasis was on the Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods down to about A. D. 1000. The Iron Age defences were examined at Assize Courts North and shown to date to the mid first century B.C. The Roman defences were sectioned at Castle Yard. The Roman south gate was discovered and its development followed from c. A.D. 70. Inside the Roman city extensive areas were examined at Lower Brook Street and Wolvesey Palace. At the former a possible military phase of the mid first century A.D. was followed by urban development c. A.D. 70 which continued down into the fifth century and included a Romano-Celtic temple and a large late third- or fourth-century workshop. At Wolvesey one house was entirely excavated and parts of two others examined. At Lankhills the excavation of the late Roman cemetery was concluded with a further season in 1972. A total of about 450 graves, many of them furnished and ranging in date from c. A.D. 310 to the early fifth century, was examined in 1967–72. A small fourth-century cemetery was excavated at Winnall. Information about the defence of the late Roman town was provided by the discovery of a bastion added to the town wall at South Gate, and by the implications of structures and objects from Lower Brook Street, Wolvesey, and Lankhills. Important evidence for the state of Winchester in the fifth to ninth centuries was recovered from South Gate, Lower Brook Street, and Wolvesey. At South Gate the gate was blocked first by a ditch and then by a wall, probably in the eighth century.

Until 1950 Henry O. Beyer (1947, 1948) was the only archaeologist active in the Philippines. By this time he had a general theory of Philippine prehistory based on his own excavations and surface collections from all over the Philippines and comparative studies of archaeological sites and relics from neighbouring countries. His chronological framework was classified into five ages: Palaeolithic, Methalithic, Neolithic, Iron and Porcelain Ages. While his works are valuable. as. a general introduction to Philippine prehistory, they can not be regarded as reliable until they are tested by extensive excavation, since Beyer's chronological frame work is based on pure guesswork.Archaeological research moving beyond Beyer began in 1950 when Wilhelm G. Solheim, Robert B. Fox and Alfred E. Evangelist initiated their Philippine field work. The work of these men produced new data and interpretations somewhat at variance with Beyer's conclusions.The most intensive and significant work ever done in the Philippines was carried out recently by Fox (1970). For the Tabon Caves on Palawan, Fox has established the first reliable chronology for any area of the Philippines. His chronology is supported by fourteen radiocarbon (C14) data. He has classified Philippine prehistory into four ages: Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Metal and Proto-Historic Ages. Other important articles are Solheim (1964, 1968), and Fox and Evangelista (1957, a, b); largely concerned with jar burial assemblages, they represent contributions to the analysis and description of Philippine pottery. Other relevant materials (Fox 1959, Locsin 1968) are of basic value for any study of Chinese ceramics. I think that recent archaeological work in the Philippine has revealed the following:1. Flake-tool Culture should be placed in the late Palaeolithic Age.2. Beyer's “Jar-Burial Cultures” should go back to the late Neolithic Age. Also, the fist Philippine potteries should be placed in the late Neolithic Age.3. The Iron Age Culture was transmitted tow or three groups of people.4. The first Chinese porcelain came to the Philippines around the 12th century

The development and changes in size, conformation and skull shape of the dog in Britain from the Mesolithic to the end of the eleventh century AD are described and factors are derived for the estimation of shoulder height from long bone lengths. The Mesolithic dog is represented by not more than four animals of about 60 cm shoulder height. In both the Neolithic and the Bronze Age the available evidence indicates a single population showing little variation. The observed range of estimated shoulder height was the same, 43–62 cm, but the mean values for each long bone length were a little higher in the later period. In the Iron Age there is again a single population but the larger dogs in it were either more common or better represented. An overall reduction in height is apparent, the range being 29–58 cm. The cardinal feature of the Romano-British dog is variability, apparent in height, build and skull shape. The height range is 23–72 cm. There were definitely two, possibly three, distinct populations and what were almost certainly house dogs were seen for the first time. The mean size of the dog in Anglo-Saxon times was greater than that in any previous period and there is evidence for two distinct populations. The range in shoulder height is 23–71 cm but overall the variation is reduced. Evidence is presented that the dog was probably used as a food animal.

Since the publication in English in 1965 of Jan Vansina's Oral Tradition, historians of Africa have been increasingly concerned with developing methods which confirm the historical value of oral traditions. Independent proof for the historicity of oral traditions is often lacking; consequently the historian is usually left with comparative analysis as his primary analytical method. Archeologists such as Merrick Posnansky, Frank Willett, and John Sutton have in part attempted to show linkages between oral traditions and archeological evidence.Posnansky, especially, has contributed much to the idea that it is possible to combine the two sources to obtain a more comprehensive view of Hfeways usually referred to as ‘prehistoric’ Recent research, though, now suggests that the concept ‘prehistoric’ must be questioned, particularly in cases where there is a demonstrated tie between archeological evidence and oral traditions. When archeology affirms the accuracy of oral traditions which explain, comment on, interpret, or locate activities and sites which predate a literate tradition, then the germaneness of the concept must be critically questioned. It is my position here that when archeological evidence confirms the historical value of oral traditions about preliterate life, then those cultural phenomena in that time period should be considered historic rather than prehistoric. To retain ‘prehistory’ as a concept in this context ignores and even militates against the historiographies and historical concepts of other cultures. The ramifications of this relativist perspective are considerable both for the study of history and of prehistory. Given this logic, historians must begin to reassess and expand their concepts of what history is and prehistorians must prepare to forfeit part of the temporal domain previously considered as prehistory.

SUMMARY A pollen diagram from blanket peat at about 410 m on Rishworth Moor in the Yorkshire Pennines is discussed with particular reference to forest clearance. The evidence suggests that there was relatively little clearance in the Neolithic and Bronze Age but considerable activity accompanied by pastoral and some arable agriculture occurred in the Iron Age. This intensive agriculture seems to have ended early in the Roman period, when there was a recovery of the woodlands. The sequence is dated by four radiocarbon assays and its significance is discussed in relation to the archaeological and historical data available.

The typical western Anatolian burial custom in the third millennium B.C. was pithos burial in extramural cemeteries. General characteristics of the custom were defined by the excavations of Gaudin at Yortan,1 and Bittel2 and K6kten3 at Babak6y, as well as through surface observations of plundered cemeteries in the Burdur and Balikesir areas. (See ill. I for locations of all sites mentioned in the text.) Results of the Bryn Mawr College excavations at Karata?-Semayiik4 in the highlands of Lycia have provided specific details on each phase of the burial procedure since over 500 tombs

The floruit of the Cretan jewellery workshop in the Iron Age is attested by many finds. To these are now added two gold finger-rings, each decorated with two attached embossed heads, recently acquired by the Metaxas Collection in Heraklion (Plate 23, a). They not only enrich our knowledge of this important branch of the art of Crete, but also prove Cretan priority in the adoption of a decorative technique widely used in the islands and in Ionia. I am greatly indebted to Mr. N. Metaxas for permission to publish these important works.

Extending previous statistical studies on the anthropology of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, anthropological material from the Iron Age (1000-0) was compiled and condensed into 71 series (population samples). Penrose distances were calculated on the basis of 10 skull measurements. The dendrogram consisting of 49 larger series shows a division into a west- and an east-cluster. The west-cluster can be broken down into a northern, entirely European section, and into a southern subcluster, stretching from Sardinia to Pakistan. The east-cluster differs from the west-cluster above all in the larger width measurements, as in the case with the north-east and south-west complexes in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages The northern part deviates from the southern part in much the same way, but only to the same degree with respect to skull width. Both in the west and in the east the “Europid Brachycephalic belt” begins to show, with a lower cephalic index in the north and south, and a higher one in the centre. The convergent trend in resemblance between the European populations continues in the Iron Age. The difference between east and west diminishes continually, too. Skull width and cephalic index run contrary to this trend; the brachycranisation process is faster in the east than in the west.

Amber has long been recognized as an important indicator of Mycenaean foreign contacts. Though much has been written, no thorough survey of the topic has yet been undertaken. The chief purpose of this article is to present a corpus, as complete as the authors can make it, of the known Mycenaean amber finds, together with those from adjacent areas.Since the nineteenth century amber objects in Italy and Greece have generally been considered by scholarly opinion to have been imported from the Baltic, and a number of finds, including Schliemann's from the Shaft Graves, were subjected to rudimentary chemical analyses to ‘prove’ this, the criterion being the presence of succinic acid. Navarro in 1925 traced the route the amber was supposed to have taken by charting the distribution of finds in central Europe in the Bronze and Iron Ages.

Boisseau Romain, Lambert Joël. Un champ de tumulus du Premier Age du Fer à Glandon (Haute-Vienne). In: Gallia, tome 33, fascicule 1, 1975. pp. 1-25.

The complexes of monumental buildings, planned and built partly in ashlar masonry, found at most of the royal centers of Judah and Israel, are among the most significant features of the material culture of Eretz-Israel in the 10th-9th centuries B.C. This widespread building activity required, first of all, enormous quantities of ashlar stones. Thus, the stone quarries were a primary factor in ashlar masonry, for it is at the quarry that the process of preparing the stone for construction begins. How can we locate and identify these quarries, and ascribe them with a reasonable degree of certainty to the Iron Age? What type of stone was utilized in Israelite ashlar masonry? What were the methods of quarrying? The present article is intended to answer several of these queries. The nature of the problem necessitates a cooperative effort by an archeologist and a geologist. The conclusions arrived at are thus based on data from both fields.

In 1931 Dr O. G. S. Crawford published his survey of the Chiltern Grim’s Ditch in ANTIQUITY, and in the following issue Mr M. W. Hughes related it to Cuthwulf’s expedition to the Chilterns in A.D. 571. It is my intention in this paper to show that Mr Hughes had no evidence for so dating the earthwork and to demonstrate that it most probably belongs to the Iron Age. Closer study on the ground has shown that it is cut by two Roman roads, and is more extensive than Crawford realized, although he had credited it with a Berkhampstead section that cannot belong to it. The only question which really remains to be considered is whether the Ditch belongs to the Belgic Iron Age, since the Belgae are known to have dug cross-country dykes, or to the pre-Belgic Iron Age, since I have recently assigned this date to a number of cross-ridge dykes not far away in the eastern Chilterns.

I desire first of all to express my appreciation of the honour you have done me in electing me President of the Society. Faced with the necessity of choosing a subject suitable for a Presidential Address, it occurred to me that a brief survey of the distribution of Man in East Anglia during the Neolithic, Bronze and Early Iron Ages might be appropriate. Selection of the region wherein the Society was born, and which inspired the fruitful work of its founders and their successors, is intended as a tribute of gratitude from one who has profited by the study of the many important Papers published in its Proceedings.The general principles, recognized as governing Man's distribution under uncivilized or semi-civilized conditions in Britain, may first be summarized.In the Lowland area to which East Anglia belongs soil is the chief determinant. There are two main types of soil: pervious, such as that overlying chalk, sand, gravel; impervious, as that overlying clay. The pervious soils induce an open type of country, or carry forest with relatively thin undergrowth; the rapidity with which such soils dry up after rain, the ease with which a scratch agriculture can be practised on them, their suitability for pastoral life, the ease of movement on them—all these factors render them attractive to early Man. As a group they form the Area of Primary Settlement. The impervious clay soils, on the other hand, carry forest with dense undergrowth, are difficult to clear, and when cleared difficult to cultivate with primitive tools. To the physical unsuitability of such soils for settlement there is added a second deterrent; water-laden soils under the conditions of savage life produce disease in man and beast. But when cultivation of such soils is possible they are found to yield the heaviest crops to tillage, being especially good for corn-growing. They are, then, utilized when civilization reaches a certain level, and have accordingly been grouped as the Area of Secondary Settlement.

SUMMARY Small-scale excavations at a site beside Twickenham Road in the eastern suburbs of Lusaka, Zambia, have yielded traces of a succession of five cultural stages ranging from the Late Stone Age to the nineteenth century A.D. A sparse and undated Late Stone Age occupation is succeeded by an Early Iron Age (Kapwirimbwe group) settlement with evidence of a highly developed ceramic tradition and for iron-working. Copper first appears in a second Early Iron Age phase. The introduction of the later Iron Age is marked by a pronounced change in the pottery style and by the appearance of goods obtained through contact with coastal trade. A human burial with filed teeth probably belongs to this phase. The final occupation of the site is of recent type and probably dates from the nineteenth century. The radiocarbon dates from Twickenham Road are an internally inconsistent series, but it is suggested that the change from Early Iron Age to later Iron Age may have taken place around the tenth century A.D. The Twic...

The author describes an excavated farm from the Early Iron Age (4th‐6th centuries A.D.) near Stavanger in Southwest Norway. Similar farms are found in hundreds in the county of Rogaland. Only a few of these have been excavated and dated, mainly to the Migration Period. Some have also been settled in the Viking Period and in the Medieval Period. Two main types of farm structures have been defined, the simple type and the complex type. The complex type has probably been much more common than hitherto believed, and what have been interpreted as several different farms of the simple type can often be seen as only parts of one farm with a complex structure. Our knowledge of the farm structure of the Late Iron Age is rather fragmentary. Most of the farms have been abandoned in the 6th century. The finds from the later periods come from burial mounds or from houses cither raised on the ruins of older house foundations, or unconnected with the older farm structure. They seem to represent a new occupation of the d...

Summary This paper provides a preliminary description and discussion of the evidence for the Early Iron Age Chondwe group of the Zambian Copperbelt. Nineteen open sites and five rock-shelters have so far yielded the characteristic Chondwe group pottery. Schematic rock paintings and lenticular grinding grooves are also attributed to the Early Iron Age. The evidence for prehistoric copper mining in the Copperbelt region is discussed and it is concluded that this industry was conducted on a small scale by the Early Iron Age inhabitants.

Previous records of Quaternary occurrences at Bowleaze Cove are noted. A series of deposits is described, with faunal and floral lists and reports on early pottery. Some molluscan faunas are compared with those from (i) the Holocene white tufa, and an undescribed Holocene grey tufa, at Spring Bottom, near Ringstead, and (ii) the Romano-British layer at Blashenwell, near Corfe, for which three deposits no faunal lists have been published hitherto, and (iii) the Iron Age levels at Maiden Castle, near Dorchester, all three localities being in south Dorset. Conclusions as to the age and origin of the Bowleaze deposits are drawn.

Dr. Miller is Assistant Professor of Archaeology at Pitzer College, Claremont, California. In the following article she surveys possibilities of contact between Later Stone Age and Early Iron Age groups in Southern Central Africa. New archaeological evidence and radiocarbon dates indicate a considerable period during which both Stone Age and Iron Age ways of life were represented in the area.

Traces of fortifications around the area apparently once occupied by the city of Old Smyrna were observed by Louis Fauvel, and our first detailed description of them is that of Prokesch von Osten, who accompanied him there on a second visit in 1825. As we shall see later, it seems likely, though proof is no longer possible, that most of the circuit wall around the tell, as well as that on the low spur to the west of it on which the modern village now stands, as described by Prokesch, may have belonged to the defences of the classical city. Nothing today survives of these above ground, owing to extensive stone-plundering in the interval; and it is to be feared that the fate of much of this rather exposed classical enceinte has been to provide masonry either for the houses of the modern village or for the terrace walls which today encircle the tell.The plundering of this outermost circuit probably left the earlier ones inside it rather more exposed to view. I have not been able to verify which of the city walls it was that was photographed by Keil in 1911, but when Franz and Helene Miltner excavated here in 1930 a part of the late-seventh-century B.C. circuit was visible on the east side of the city. Here they cleared about 80 metres of its face, for the most part to no great depth, then picked up its line again with a small probe some 20 metres farther north. Two further small trenches seem to have located more of this late-seventh-century wall-line south-south-west of their long cut, in addition to traces of yet other circuits. Besides this they report sinking two shafts into the mound dominating the north-west corner of the tell and making two small probes in occupation levels within the city itself.

The work of art here to be published was found in the excavations of 1938 at Elmswell, about two miles west of Driffield in the East Riding of Yorkshire (6-in. O.S. Yorks. E.R. CLXISE.). These excavations, following on those carried out by our Fellow Mr. A. L. Congreve from 1935 to 1937; have shown the site to be that of a native settlement of the Parisi, occupied—probably continuously—at least from Flavian times until the end of the Roman period, and again in pagan Saxon times. Of the pre-Roman Iron Age nothing has yet come to light beyond two British coins, one of the Iceni (c. A.D. 25) and one possibly of Cunobelin, but the site is separated by little more than the line of the Driffield—Malton railway from the Eastburn area where, in building operations in 1938, as many as seventy-five Iron Age graves were discovered even in the relatively small plots of ground excavated. These contained the remains of flexed inhumation-burials, each originally covered by a small barrow, exactly as in the well-known Danes' Graves and Arras cemeteries; and the date within the three centuries directly preceding the Roman Conquest was confirmed by several finds of grave-goods, notably an iron sword of La Tène type, bronze ornaments, an ‘involuted’ brooch, and several vessels of pottery. Further, in another part of the same site, Parisian pottery of Roman age was found, the earliest of which agrees exactly with the earliest from Elmswell. There can in fact be little doubt that this whole area was an important centre of settlement in the east Yorkshire equivalent of La Tène times, where ‘the Iron Age B’ culture of the Parisi passed directly into the romanization that was introduced at the Flavian conquest of the early seventies A.D.

The tract of country bordering on the area of the Anzio beach-head, part of the wider Roman Campagna, stretching from the confines of Ardea to the banks of the T Tiber, is the scene of the dramatic action of the last six books of the Aeneid, the field of strife whereon is played to its finish the struggle for the foundation of the Roman race, and for the birth of Rome. On this soil still remain the Vergilian city of Ostia, which lies near the Tiber's mouth and was the port of Rome in antiquity, of Ardea and Lavinium, ancient settlements standing on the last seaward tufa ridge of the Alban massif and having their origin in the early Iron Age, and of Laurentum, the site of which was early lost in classical times, and cannot yet be located with any certainty.

Mr. Soper is Assistant Director of the B.I.H.A.E.A., and is in charge of the Bantu Studies Project of the Institute. He has been carrying out a survey of Iron Age sites in south-eastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania. The identification of pottery related to Dimple-based ware near the coast, and the early radiocarbon date associated with it, represents an important step forward in our study of the Early Iron Age.

A number of samples of subfossilCepaea nemoralisandhortensisfrom sites in southern Britain of archaeological interest, ranging in date from about 4500 b .c . to Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon, have been scored for frequency of the major banding morphs, and compared with present-day samples taken on each site or as near to it as these species could be found. In C.nemoralisthere is a significant decrease of unbandeds from pre-iron Age samples to the corresponding ones for the present day, but no indication of systematic change from Iron Age samples to the present day. Spread banded also shows changes from pre-iron Age samples to present-day ones, but very little change from the early Iron Age to the present day. The smaller samples of C.hortensisavailable give no sign of a trend although there is much change from pre-iron Age times to the present; Iron Age samples and the corresponding present-day ones do not show the relative constancy of composition seen in C.nemoralis—as usual these two very closely related species are behaving differently. At the present day there is evidence (experimental and distributional) that the frequencies of banding morphs of C.nemoralisare affected by climate, unbandeds and mid-bandeds being favoured by better summers than those normal in Britain at present. The available evidence, from pollen analysis and other sources, of changes in the climate of southern Britain in the last 6500 years suggests that the observed differences in morph frequencies can be related to known climatic changes, in agreement with present-day evidence. One area effect (south-west M arlborough Downs) has contracted and become less intense since pre-iron Age times, as perhaps have others; in some cases a site has remained in an area effect, but the effect itself has changed. Two pairs of samples from lowland sites appear to have changed from frequencies indicating area effects in pre-iron Age times to others consistent with visual selection at the present day. Area effects seem to have been rather constant from the Iron Age to the present day.

(1943). The Early Iron Age Settlement at Fengate, Peterborough. Archaeological Journal: Vol. 100, No. 1, pp. 188-223.

Summary The Victoria Falls region of southern Zambia is rich in archaeological material, particularly of the Early Iron Age. Excavations at Chundu and Zambezi Farm uncovered large collections of pottery, iron objects and other material culture. A sub-rectangular hut plan was discovered at Zambezi Farm. Pottery analysis associates these sites with Dambwa, and the ceramic seriation suggests that they form a unit as the third stage of a four-part Early Iron Age sequence proposed for the area. Survey reports are included for five sites north-west of Livingstone, Zambia and an excavation at Musya presents evidence of three occupations ranging from the eighth to the sixteenth centuries. Pottery from sites in western Zambia suggests a cultural complex related to but typological different from other early manifestations in the country. The pottery from Sefula Mission illustrates one of the sparse collections from this large portion of the country.

The existence on Selsey Bill in West Sussex of sites belonging to the Early Iron Age was recognized in 1909, but recent finds of pottery at one of these, the gravel pit in Golf Links Lane, has made a closer study of the question necessary.