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A total of 108 individuals from six different cultures found in the Department of Ica, Peru, were studied for the presence of Harris's Lines. Such lines or “bone scars” are formed due to cessation of bone growth due to episodes of starvation or illness and possibly other causes. These individuals covered a span of time of nearly 2,600 years. The individuals from mountain cultures had fewer lines and possibly a healthier childhood than those from coastal cultures. The modern population surveyed in this series still show a pattern of Harris's Lines similar to people from the Inca culture of 450 years ago.

SUMMARY The development of dermatology in Wales (Cymru) is traced against a short history of the independent kingdom which became the Principality. Skin diseases were treated by the earliest Cymry, Celtic druids, Celto-Christian priests, Anglo-Saxon leeches and court physicians, and later by medieval university graduates and unskilled village herbalists and, when industrialization came, by ‘truck doctors’ and general practitioners. The early dermatologists are described. Traditional holy wells and folk medicine form connecting links.

Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish explorer with the ill fated Narvaez expedition, was shipwrecked on the Texas coast in 1528. During an eight-year sojourn among the Indians, he was obliged to become their physician or medicine man. His usual method of treatment was a laying-on of hands and fervent praying, to which the Indians responded miraculously. However, with what tools he had, Cabeza de Vaca also practiced surgery when necessary, and in one historic operation in 1535, removed an arrowhead from deep in an Indian's chest (sagittectomy). This surgical cure made him famous among the Indians and was responsible for his eventual safe return to civilization. After a remarkable transcontinental journey by foot he finally arrived in Mexico City. After returning to Spain he published, in 1542, a detailed description of his adventures together with an account of his famous operation. (N Engl J Med 289:1403–1407, 1973)

Thirty-two dimensions of the maxillary and mandibular dental arches were measured on 320 adult skulls derived from Anglo-saxon to modern times. Multivariate analysis showed varying patterns of contrast between the samples, depending upon which arch dimensions were considered. The results suggest that dental arch changes occur independently of jaw changes.

The averaged sensory evoked potential (EP) was recorded from the scalp (vertex to mastoid) in a psychological refractory period experiment in which 12 young adults participated. Reaction times (RTs) were measured to either both or only the second of pairs of stimuli, in different trial blocks, with inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) of 100, 200, 300 and 400 msec occurring in random sequence. EPs were recorded at each ISI. No latency changes could be found in the prominent non-specific components (P1–N1–P2) of the EP to stimulus 2 even at ISIs where the RT was substantially delayed. Thus the notions that the RT2 delay is due to occupation of a single channel central processor by S1 and that non-specific EP components reflect the time course of information processing in underlying neural tissue, do not lend each other mutual support. Furthermore, as profound amplitude refractoriness in components P1–N1 and N1–P2 persisted at ISIs where RT was as fast or faster than simple RT, there appears to be a dissociation between “psychological refractoriness” and “physiological refractoriness”. The implications of these results are discussed.

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During ancient times and the Middle Ages, knowledge about veins was more accurate than about arteries and the heart. The description of valves in the veins in 1536 induced William Harvey to think that blood flows unidirectionally. This reasoning led him to the discovery of circulation in 1628. Thereafter the venous system received little attention. Venous pressures were first measured by Stephen Hales in 1733. Albrecht von Haller (1707-1788) described the respiratory pump aiding venous return. Introduction of the mercury manometer by Jean Poiseuille (1799-1869) facilitated research on arteries but discouraged venous research by making low pressures more difficult to measure. Pierre Potain (1825-1901) and Sir James Mackenzie (1853-1925) analyzed the venous pulse with tambour recorders. Kenneth Franklin renewed interest in the subject through his book A Monograph on Veins (1937). Development of high-fidelity sensitive instruments during the last two decades finally resolved some fundamental problems concerning the venous system.

The components of a diagnostic procedure are specified. The history of the development of medical science in relation to diagnosis is traced from Classical Greek Medicine to the present day. Parallel with developments in medical science, the advances made in allied sciences which have influenced medical progress are described. The history of veterinary medicine is then presented with particular emphasis on developments within the last 50 years. Reference is made to the teaching of clinical subjects in relation to diagnosis and finally, future trends in diagnosis are discussed. It is concluded that it is absolutely essential that veterinary graduates should continue to be trained as clinicians capable of making a diagnosis. ‘The ability to make a diagnosis is the hallmark of the veterinarian.’ Resume. On specifie les composants d'une procedure diagnostique. L'histoire du developpement de la Science Medicale en relation avec le diagnostic est retracee de la Medecine Greque Classique jusqu'a nos jours. Les paralleles avec developpements dans la Science Medicale, les pas faits dans les sciences alliees qui ont influence les progres medicaux sont decrits. L'histoire de la medecine veterinaire est alors presentee et on insiste particulierement sur les developpements au cours des cinquante dernieres annes. On se refere a l'enseignement des sujets clinicaux en relation du diagnostic et finalement on discute des tendances futures dans le diagnostic. On conclut qu'il est absolument essentiel que les gradues veterinaires continuent a ětre formes comme clinicians capables de faire un diagnostic. “La capacite de faire un diagnostic est le sceau du veterinaire”. Zusammenfassung. Die mitbestimmenden Bestandteile von einem diagnostischen Vorgehen sind spezifiziert. Geschichte iiber die Entwicklung der Heilkunde in bezug auf Diagnose ist von der klassischen grechischen Medizin bis zum heutigen Tag verfolgt. Gleichlaufend mit der Entwicklung in medizinischer Wissenschaft, wurden die Fortschritte die man in berbundenen Wissenschaften machte, welche medizinischen Fortschritt beeinflusst haben, beschrieben. Die Geschichte uber veterinare Medizin wurde mit besonderem Nachdruck auf die Entwicklung innerhalb der letzten 50 Jahre, dargestellt. Erwahnt wurde das Lehren klinischen Fachern in bezug auf Diagnose und schliesslich wurden kunftige Richtungen in Diagnose diskutiert. Man kam zu dem Beschluss, dass es absolut notwendig ist, dass veterinare Graduierte fortsetzen sollen, als Kliniker ausgebildet zu werden, um imstande zu sein, eine Diagnose zu stellen. Die Fahigkeit eine Diagnose zu stellen, ist ein Stempel von Echtheitfur den Tierarzt.

A MONG the many reproaches made against the Middle Ages iill one of the most insistent aspersions has been a three-headed slander, barking like Cerberus to this effect. First, that the streets of mediaeval towns were constantly foul-smelling and full of filth, owing to the lack of closed sewers and private or public conveniences, to the custom of throwing refuse into the street, and to the failure of the municipal authorities to clean the pavements. Second, that soap and baths were little known in those benighted days. Third, that these dirty and pestilence-breeding living conditions in the crowded towns were accompanied by a complete lack of anything resembling sanitary legislation and administration or care for public health. So far as I know, verylittle specific evidence has accompanied these broad charges -or, at least, one could desire a great deal more than has been adduced. One suspects that they have been largely due to prejudice against the Middle Ages and the subconscious impression produced by the survival of some such conditions into rather recent modern times. Therefore, on the assumption that everything has steadily progressed since 'the revival of learning' and the Reformation, it has been inferred that conditions must have been much worse in the Middle Ages. If Islip is still a stinking village to-day, think what it must have been when it was the birthplace of Edward the Confessor. If Villeneuve-les-Avignon smells far from sweet now, what must Avignon itself, on the other side of the Rhone, have been like during the Babylonian Captivity? If a public urinal across the street from my hotel in Florence offended my nose in 1912, how could I have endured the streets from which Dante was exiled in 1302? But this line of reasoning can be turned in just the opposite direction. If in the same year of 1912, in one of the main streets of Troyes, I saw little boys industriously collecting the fresh horse-manure from the pavement into dust-pans and

Based on the originality and accuracy of their scientific accomplishments, six anatomists emerge preeminent among the early contributors to the knowledge of laryngology. As long as 2,400 years ago, Hippocrates theorized about laryngeal function. In the succeeding centuries, Galen, da Vinci, Vesalius, Eustachius, and Magendie described laryngeal structures and innervation, established through anatomical dissection and experiment. Modern methods of evaluating glottic function often rely on information revealed centuries ago.

The reason for the presence of the paranasal sinuses has been a controversial subject since the time of Galen, 130–201 A.D. In a review of the literature, the diversity of the numerous functions ascribed to these air-filled cavities was found to be astounding. Many functions were ascribed only on the basis of opinion rather than scientific investigation and recent studies have illustrated the fallacy of these opinions. To date, not one proposed function has been universally accepted to be the essential reason for their existence. This review of the literature deals mainly with those theories of anatomical and physiological significance of the paranasal sinuses having received the most consideration and many of which are currently considered tenable. These are, as follows: (1) impart resonance to the voice; (2) humidify and warm inspired air; (3) increase the area of the olfactory membrane; (4) absorb shock applied to the head for protection of sensory organs; (5) secrete mucus for keeping the nasal chambers moist; (6) thermally insulate the nervous centers; (7) aid facial growth and architecture; (8) exist as evolutionary remains and/or unwanted air spaces; and (9) lighten the bones of the skull for maintenance of proper balance of the head.

The terms of this enquiry emerge from the text of a patent issued by the Duke of Parma on 30 January 1562. It appoints a new architect to act in association with Giacomo Vignola, the distinguished master who had long been in charge of his building activities. The new appointee is Giacinto Vignola, son of Giacomo and previously his father's assistant. One can think of several reasons why such a step might be taken, then or now, but in any case it indicates that the Duke wanted to keep Vignola, make him content, and continue the same style of work.

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B Y his astronomical tables drawn up on i6 March I485, in the tower of London, where he had been placed at the command of king Richard III, Lewis of Caerleon called attention not only to his own plight but also to his abiding interest in astronomical phenomena.' Yet he has failed to receive more than passing notice from recent writers,2 despite the several manuscripts containing the works of leading astronomers and mathematicians of both Oxford and Cambridge to which Lewis' name and notes are attached, as well as his alleged participation in the stirring events that preceded the accession of Henry VII (Tudor) to the throne of England. These considerations would appear to warrant the present effort to rescue Lewis of Caerleon from obscurity and to call attention to his extant manuscript notes on astronomy and mathematics. According to the brief account in the Dictionary of National Biography (X, I28), Lewis of Caerleon, "an obscure fifteenth-century scholar," was often confused with the more distinguished and better known fourteenth-century theologian, Lewis Charlton or Cherleton (d. I369), bishop of Hereford. The confusion is said to have arisen because of similarity of name and pursuits, and the fact of both coming from the Welsh border.3 The account then indicates that according to Bale (p. 475), Lewis of Caerleon, "a distinguished mathematician, theologian, medical writer, and teacher at Oxford (d. I369),," composed a number of works, the titles of which are indicated.4 Of these works, however, it is said, "nothing else seems to be known." 5 It is interesting therefore to note that the Catalogue of Royal Manuscripts (II, 68), calls attention to manuscripts in the British Museum which contain works by Lewis of Caerleon similar to those noted by Bale.6 One of these, Royal MS I2.G.i, had already been noted by

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The authors examine the concept of child advocacy in historical perspective, describing its antecedents as reflected in law, education, welfare, and child labor. Although it is not yet realized in practice, child advocacy seems to represent the recognition by society that the developmental needs of its children are so important that they must be ensured as rights to be promoted and protected.

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