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“Functional” marriage textbooks usually state that differences between spouses in class background are, regardless of adult status, influences for marital maladjustment and instability; but a search of the literature revealed no empirical support for this generalization. Data from a sample of males in a high-status occupation reveal no marital instability which can be attributed to an interaction between the class backgrounds of the spouses.

A study was made of the occurrence of apomixis and heterogamy in rose rootstocks belonging to the Caninae. Of several ‘Edelcanina’-selections progenies obtained from crossings with wild roses or from self- and open pollinations were analysed morphologically and cytologically. It was concluded that both apomixis and normal generative propagation occur. The presence of aneuploid plants is discussed, especially with reference to earlier investigations.

We will here examine a few hypotheses or theories which have to do with mate-selection. With the assistance of parts of these we will, in addition, treat some aspects of marital adjustment. Among the old ways of thinking about mate-selection, we find the conceptions homogamy and heterogamy. The hypothesis of homogamy commonly says that the choice of a spouse will be (unconsciously or consciously) done so that the spouses are alike as much as possible. The assumption that one tends (unconsciously or consciously) to choose a spouse who is as different from oneself as possible is consequently called the hypothesis of heterogamy. Thus generally drawn up, the two hypotheses contradict each other. Much research has been undertaken to test the two hypotheses. There is no lack of support for the former one. It has been found that according to many social characteristics, e.g. religious confession, social class, education, and intelligence, the spouses tend to be equal. Moreover, with regard to what we prefer to call social psychological characteristics, interests, attitudes etc., the hypothesis of homogamy seems to be adequate. The hypothesis of heterogamy, on the other hand, has been confirmed at the investigation of the spouses' psychological characteristics, i.e. personality traits and some secondary needs. After some reformulations and specifications, the two hypotheses can be said to complement each other. Both are merely descriptive hypotheses. Since such hypotheses seldom are especially productive, it has been necessary to go further into them and transform them into explanatory hypotheses. A first step in that direction is the principle of propinquity in geographical and social space. It says that we tend to marry persons in spatial nearness to ourselves 1), i.e. persons who live in our neighbourhood, who are our work comrades, who were our schoolfellows etc. In our western culture we almost never marry a person that we have never met, and the probability of meeting persons who are neighbours, schoolfellows, work comrades, etc., is much greater than the prob

To the cytologist the most interesting phases of a plant's life history are fertilization and the reduction of chromosomes, processes which initiate the sporophyte and gametophyte generations and which are of the utmost importance in any cytological theories of heredity. We shall not attempt to define fertilization, but shall simply state that, in our opinion, the process is essentially uniform from its first appearance in the fusion of equal gametes in the lower a1gm, up to the heterogamy of the angiosperms and, in our opinion, this fusion of gametes, whether they be the equal gametes of the lower algae or the unequal gametes of the higher plants, always initiates a sporophytic phase in the life history, a phase which normally continues until the reduction of chromosomes brings it to a close and initiates the gametophytic phase. The gymnosperms have as yet only a single well-established case of apogamy and not even a single case of apospory, and, consequently, their only mode of reproduction, aside from occasional budding, is that resulting from fertilization. Since the significance of fertilization becomes more intelligible with increasing knowledge of the participating gametes, it is of prime importance to know the structure, evolution and behavior of the sperms and eggs. SPERMATOGENESIS The sperms of fossil gymnosperms are almost unknown, but it is safe to say that Cycadofilicales and

ONE of the fundamental assumptions of the laws of Mendelism is the theory of the fr6e combination of all gametes of opposite sex. It forms the basis for the chance distribution of all the possible gene combinations. We have recently become acquainted with cases, however, where the attraction between two gametes of opposite sex does not depend upon this sex differentiation alone but is affected also by other Mendelian factors. Such cases are now found in very different groups throughout the plant kingdom, in Basidiomycetes, in Dicotyledons and in Monocotyledons. It can hardly be doubted that such a selection of viable gametes in some combinations is a rather general phenomenon causing deviations from expected ratios. As in cases of linkage and of elimination of gametes or zygotes having a certain constitution, it causes an excess of some combinations and a deficiency of others in the offspring. A peculiarity which it has in common with heterogamy is in causing a difference between reciprocal crosses in higher plants. There is a selection between the male gametes only. The first carefully analyzed case was published by Correns (1917, 1918, 1921). He investigated the sex inheritance in the dioecious Lychnis dioica L. (Melandrium rubrum Garcke) and L. alba Mill. (Melandrium album Garcke). The male plants are interpreted as heterozygous (Ff) and produce two types of pollen grains; male determining (f) and female determining (F). The female plants are homozygous (FF) and form only one

There is probably no other single subject within the discipline of biology that has engendered as much misunderstanding and mistrust as has the subject of evolution. The mere mention of a serious discussion of this subject usually raises the tenor of interest in a roomful of beginning college biology students. Some are quite ready to hear more about a concept concerning which they have mixed emotions; some are resolute passive resisters; while others are immediately en garde and ready to take on all comers. Some see it as an overt attack on their religious beliefs, while others view it as a sort of mystical all-controlling demigod in itself. Since this subject is so central to the understanding of biology as a dynamic discipline, I offer these comments for consideration and criticism. First, it is an illogical reaction of college faculty to place the blame for a muddled view of evolution on instructors in the secondary and primary school system. While there may be some measure of merit in this reaction, the main difficulties, I believe, lie elsewhere. I would expect, for example, to find very few people on the street who would be able or willing to spend time in a debate on the relative merit of isogamy vs. heterogamy. The much more intricate topic of organic evolution, however, is readily discussed not only by the man on the street, but also by wellmeaning non-biology teachers, religionists of every kind, and of course, poorly prepared students. It is not my intention here to discuss the compatibility of the concept of evolution with theology, political theory, or religion. I would, however, re-emphasize to the reader that if he is a teacher of biology at any level, he has no monopoly, singly or collectively, in shaping the students' understanding of evolu

Prior to undertaking an investigation of Franco-Iranian marriages, the author attempts to delineate the perspective from which the research will proceed by focusing on the social-cultural context in which the couples must live as well as on the 'cultural distance' which separates the spouses. Given the evolution of family and choice of spouse in Iran — as presented by Iranian sociologists — the Franco-Iranian marriage, though an exception, still exhibits many of the characteristics of the modern Iranian marriage. It is in this light that the integration of this 'mixed' marriage in Iranian society will be observed. Cultural factors in mixed marriages result in a greater degree of cultural heterogamy between the spouses ; but these same factors might also contribute to increasing homogamy in other spheres which have yet to be examined. The author questions the tendency to consider cultural distance only as a generator of conflicts and suggests that it might be the sensitivity to this distance which causes conflict. The study of Franco-Iranian marriages, in the context of the author's research, is also aimed at shedding some light on the adaptation of French women to a feminine condition different from that for which they have been prepared and at a better understanding of their position as cultural vectors in a foreign setting, as well as the poten¬ tial of this role. As a Franco-Iranian marriage is first and foremost a marriage, its study should also further the understanding of the couple., Parmentier Elisabeth. Les mariages franco-américains en France [French-American marriages in France]. In: Ethnies, volume 4, 1974. Les mariages mixtes. pp. 75-90.

Are there any criteria which allow marriages to be definitively classified as mixed ? Simply counting every possible variable would be interminable and fallacious and would lead to the definition of all marriages as mixed, confounding heterogamy and mixedness. It is not the existence of a difference — whatever that difference may be — that defines mixedness but the existence of an endogamous social group which operates according to a social definition of 'difference' and accepts the notion of interdict. Mixed marriage is then the union between two people who should not have married. Their marriage infringes upon principles considered as important for the survival and cohesion of the group. The authors consider problems arising in the study of mixed couples in the light of the following : — Under what conditions may mixed marriage be considered pathological ; — to what extent are the effects of the social definition of difference subject to varia¬ tions according to feelings of membership ; — at what level does the notion of social status come in ; — what are the problems which cultural duality entails for the socialization of the couples and their children., Bensimon Doris, Lautman Françoise. Quelques aspects théoriques des recherches concernant les mariages mixtes [Some theorical aspects of research about mixed marriages]. In: Ethnies, volume 4, 1974. Les mariages mixtes. pp. 17-39.

In his pioneering hybridization experiments with two species of tobacco (Nicotiana paniculata and N. rustica) Koelreuter (1763, Fortsetzung, p. 24) concluded that it was a matter of indifference which of these species was taken as the mother and which as the father. In both cases, the same result was obtained; the Fl-generation of N. paniculata ♀ × N. rustica ♂ was not distinguishable from that of the reverse or reciprocal cross N. rustica ♀ × N. paniculata ♂. Although he found deviations from this rule of the similarity of reciprocal crosses in some other hybridization experiments, however, these were not sufficient to prove the rule invalid. His successors could only corroborate his findings, that in general no difference worth mentioning occurred between reciprocal crosses. Hence Focke, in his meritorious ‘Pflanzenmischlinge’ (1881, p. 479) comes to the conclusion ‘that in general, in true species of the vegetable kingdom, the shape-determining ability of the male and the female element are absolutely equal at fertilization’. Nevertheless this rule does not have so firm a foundation as the previous one. There are many exceptions to Focke’s rule which later turned out to have a fundamental significance (Pellew, 1929). We find important examples in which both of the reciprocal hybridization products are dissimilar. Quoting again from rich Oenothera-investigations we find (besides the strong linkage of genes in groups and dissimilarity with in Fl-generations) another striking phenomenon in many of the species of Oenothera investigated. This is the phenomenon of heterogamy (De Vries, 1911, p. 99). In 1903 for instance De Vries had already concluded (1903, p. 471) that the hybrids Oenothera biennis ♀ × O. muricata ♂ showed many more ‘muricata’ characteristics than the reciprocal cross O. muricata ♀ × O. biennis ♂ which tends to resemble the biennis-plants (figure 64).

(1) Potential ethological isolating mechanisms were observed between breeds and strains of domestic fowl. (2) Brown and White Leghorn females exhibited homogamy, but females of a Broiler strain showed a preference for Breeding Line Brown Leghorn males, which bear a close phenotypic resemblance to the Red Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus). (3) Observations indicated that females discriminated between males on physical characteristics rather than quantitative differences in male courtship. (4) In a ''choice-situation'', males which had been reared with own-breed females courted caged own-breed hens significantly more than others. Males reared with their own and other breeds showed only weak own-breed preferences, and in two cases, heterogamy was observed. (5) Males apparently discriminated between females on visual cues, particularly female plumage colour. (6) Assortative mating within a single line was also observed, females preferring some males to others. Quantitative differences in male courtship were not important in this respect. (7) In tests of short duration, males did not exert preferences for individual hens of a single line. (8) A sequential analysis of the courtship of the Brown Leghorn cock revealed that two displays were important in evoking female solicitation, namely the waltz and the rear approach. Three other displays were interpreted as increasing sexual arousal in the female. (9) The evolutionary significance of some of the results is briefly discussed.

STERN1, analysing the evidence concerning the mode of inheritance of 16 traits which were suspected to be completely Y-linked in man, emphasized that in organisms with heterogamy of the male sex, complete Y -linkage of genes with full penetrance is characterized by: (a) occurrence of the trait in males only; (b) its re-occurrence in all sons of affected males; (c) the daughters of affected men being not only phenotypically normal but also, in addition, not having affected offspring. One of the traits discussed was hypertrichosis of the ears (hypertrichosis pinnae auris2), and Stern criticized the original pedigree published by Tommasi3,4 on grounds of its having been based on unreliable hearsay evidence. He concluded that judgment on the mode of inheritance of this trait should be postponed until better evidence became available.

and marital satisfaction. In many studies concerned with mate selection, the major hypotheses come down to two, namely, homrogamy and heterogamy. In general, socioeconomic or demographic variables seem to uphold the homogamy hypothesis. On the other hand, for at least one investigator and the sources he cites, psychological variables support a heterogamy hypothesis.1 Employing the same frame of reference, it is a logical step from studies of mate selection to studies of differences in marital satisfaction be

Using national data on white ever-married women under forty-five, differentials in marital instability are examined for several of the wife's characteristics at first marriage and for the couple's combined age, education and religion. Dummy variable multiple regression is used to adjust for the effects of differing durations since first marriage and to obtain effects for each variable net of other variables. With other variables controlled, an inverse age at marriage-instability relationship persists; and differences in marital stability by education appear largely attributable to differences in age at marriage by education. Other characteristics we considered are the wife's religion while growing up, whether she grew up on a farm, whether she lived with both parents at age fourteen, whether she was pregnant before her first marriage and whether her first husband had been married before. When we included the husband's variables, we found husbands age at marriage and education to have a negative relationship with marital instability. Higher instability for intermarriage is found among couples divergent in age or religion; only extreme differences in education are associated with higher instability.

Research on homogamy and heterogamy in mate selection has usually studied couples already engaged or married without comparing these selections with others which might have been made from the field of eligibles or controlling for influence of the couple's subsequent interaction. This study finds that 20 couples were homogamous within their field of eligibles on self, social, and total adjustment as well as I.Q. score prior to their selections of each other.

The literature on social stratification refers on occasion to inter-class marriage as the "acid test" of class mobility. This paper examines that proposition using Italian national-sample survey data on four socio-political perspectives: the respondent's perception of 1) the different distribution of rewards in society, 2) the degree to which class boundaries restrict social intercourse, 3) the character of inter-class relations, and 4) the interest representations of political parties. Evidence supports the proposition. In addition, rates of heterogamy are reported, and the relationship of heterogamy to career entries is examined.