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Researchers have pointed out the possible utility of handwriting analysis in revealing personality traits that could be useful in various business problems such as credit screening, personnel selection, and buying behavior. The authors examine the ability of professional graphologists to predict subjects' self-rankings of personality traits. The study indicates both low-predictive ability and low inter-judge reliabilities across the predictions that are made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marketers are making great efforts to seek relationships between personality and consumer behavior. The extent of their success greatly depends on having adequate psychodiagnostic tools. This article discusses the possibilities for grapho-analysis in marketing research related to consumers' personality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article highlights the importance of handwriting instruction. The teacher must take responsibility to provide materials and activities to help children eliminate shortcomings related to their handwriting skills. An individual summary sheet for handwriting was developed at Auburn University to help teachers analyze the handwritings of their students. The form can help a teacher in formulating handwriting instruction. It also helps the child identify specific skills that need improvement. The practice the child gets in rating his handwriting can help him immensely.

The article reports the effects of sizable amounts of alcohol upon a well-habituated but complex visual-motor task, such as handwriting. All subjects consumed between 9 and 15 ounces of whiskey. The drinking was done in a social setting, four subjects at a time. They usually played cards, chatted among themselves or with the several experimenters present. Occasionally, the subjects were interrupted for alcoholmeter tests. The handwriting test was administered as the first of a psychological test battery prior to the beginning of drinking. The test was re-administered four hours after the aforementioned doses of alcohol had been consumed. The results indicated that the amounts of alcohol ingested by the subjects affect their handwriting quite markedly. These results are even more significant in view of the fact that the subjects were much more familiar with the material to be copied upon re-administration.

This article talks about the pre-Gothic monophthongizations and Wulfila's graphemic system. It notes that every student of graphemic systems of living languages knows that a graphemic system need not be related to other systems of a given language consistently. A graphemical system may correspond, by and large, to a phonemic system, but still reflect some particulars of the related phonetic system. On the other hand, it may be so devised as to present morphophonemic units rather than phonemic units, its function being to indicate morphological invariants rather than phonological ones. The author claims that, although by and large the graphemic system of Wulfilian Gothic seems to be phonemic, the sequence has to be interpreted in relation to the morphophonemic system of Gothic.

The article presents some of the published articles on the problems in psychology and pedagogy of handwriting, emphasizing the relationship of speed and quality. These data are used as basis for certain tentative conclusions and further research. To expand the relationship of speed and quality, the results of several investigations are presented in a table. The figures obtained using Thorndike and the Ayers scales are also transmuted to compare the averages representing the quality of writing. The belief on giving separate attention to speed and quality of writing and to study their relationships is justified by the data gathered. A tentative standard in two characteristics of handwriting is offered for further verification.

The article presents some issues regarding the teaching of handwriting. There are different forms of movement to be employed in handwriting including finger movement and free-arm movement. There is a question on whether the arm component or the finger component should be trained first. Arm movements can be advantageous for a child if the materials used need large rough movements. One instance where arm movement is beneficial is in writing at the board. Furthermore, arm movements have certain benefits for teachers. Finger movement is valuable in writing small letters. The development of letter forms is also important in handwriting.

The article discusses the dual aspects of personality found in an individual's handwriting. In making any mark upon any surface by direct human agency, as a means of communicating information to a fellow-man, is regarded as handwriting. This may include engrossing and drawing, and even painting. Nevertheless, in its popular acceptation, the term "handwriting" is limited to that form of freely written characters usually adopted by one person in sending messages to another person. In its restricted sense, therefore, handwriting may be considered as the written speech of the individual; like his oral efforts it soon becomes impressed with characteristics peculiar to himself, and tending to differentiate him from all other individuals. This establishes for him a customary and distinctive style, in writing, which may be more or less varied, from time to time, by accidental causes, such as haste, carelessness, position in writing, excitement, weakness, or disease. A writer's style gradually becomes so much a part of his nature that the physical act of writing is then scarcely a conscious effort on his part, but is rather an automatic production, resulting from his mere mental determination to write. This almost unconscious production includes two distinct parts namely the physical method of performing the act, and the pictorial forms resulting from such performance.

This article presents technical abstracts and notes related to police science. In the "Gas Chromatography in Detection of Kerosene Residues," K. Narayanaswami and H.L. Bami, discuss several cases, in which GLC was used to analyze evidence suspected of containing hydrocarbon material. In "Graphometry--The Problem of "Closing-Lines," S.V. Margadant, presents a geometric approach used in the examination of handwriting cases involving "closing-lines." In "A Special Case of Handwriting Analysis," Andre Mertens discusses the analysis in cases where an illiterate person uses an "x" as a legal signature. In "French Small-Firearm Cartridge Headstamps," Christian Clanet presents a history of cartridge head stamps used by French ammunition manufacturers over the years. In " How to Handle Evidence," R.A. Steindler presents methods of handling for many types of evidence and a wide variety of crimes. In " Planning a Forensic Science Lab," John W. Gunu, Jr. and Richard S. Frank present the planning, design, and implementation of the crime laboratory. Areas examined are staff, operating budget, facility, and equipment. Each is discussed in detail as an aid to those involved in the implementation of new laboratories.

The article presents briefs related to police science. The article "Explosive Compounds and Ballistic Powders for Use in Firearms," Eugenio Lagagesse presents a technical discussion of explosive materials encountered in the crime laboratory. "Mannequins in Court," by Peter J. Pitchess describes the various ways mannequins have been used in court to illustrate wounds in homicide victims. "Forensic Examination by the Dentist," by A. Ortiz and A.G. Racey reveals that forensic odontology can be used for human identification, living or dead. "Stereochemical Composition of d- and I- Amphetamine Mixtures by Thermal Analysis of the Benzoyl Derivatives," by William E. Ment and Victor S. Marino describes a procedure for the thermal analysis of the benzoyl derivative of amphetamite. The article "The Examination of Handwriting," by Cecil L. Wilson states the requirements necessary to become a "handwriting expert." His recommendations include studying as many handwritings as possible, noting minor characteristics as well a the general nature of the handwriting, and making preliminary examination of documents.

Medical experience in the evaluation of handwriting changes may be added to the points of consideration of the examiner of Q.D. Responses to stress or the changing health situation of a person as well as the effect of psychotherapy, have considerable influence on a person's permanent muscular tension which in turn will influence certain handwriting traits. Therefore a piece of writing should not be considered as representing a person but rather as representative of that person at a particular life period and in a specific situation. The direction of the changes to be expected has been discussed and demonstrated with regard to the three main areas: movement, space, and form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the standards of writing. The accuracy of handwriting opinions depends upon the accuracy of the known writing. Writing standards may be defined as specimens which tell how a person writes. A person has certain fixed habits which identify his writing. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly important element of identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and its extent. Writing standards must accurately define both aspects. This requires writing in quantity. If the quantity of standards is somewhat limited, experienced examiners learn to evaluate slight divergencies from the known specimens in terms of whether they can be attributed to normal or expected variation. Writing under conditions of extreme haste and lack of care may display variables which are abnormal for the writer under consideration. Thus, good writing standards should be sufficient to define accurately both the identifying habits and qualities as well as the kind and extent of variation typical of the writer's handwriting under any specific writing conditions. Factors which can cause a particular signature to appear abnormal include writing under adverse writing conditions, such as in bed or on a pad held in the hand; illness of a serious but short duration which produces a weakness in the writing; physical exhaustion, intoxication, and other physical conditions which affect some writers' handwriting.

The article presents the abstracts of several articles which deal with police science. Disguised Handwriting is a report on handwriting disguises employed by a sample over a period of 10 years. One of the important findings is that disguised writing is not always identifiable with the normal writing of a given subject. Improved Method for X-ray Diffraction Analysis described the special photographic processing necessary to obtain a usable diffractogram. In Differentiation of Human and Animal Bone Tissue, the microstructure of the one is proposed as a means of differentiating human and animal bone fragments. What Every Chief Should Know About Narcotics gives a short lay discussion of the common narcotics encountered by police officials which include opium, morphine, marijuana and barbiturates. In Tracking Prison Escapees Is an Art, communication equipment, trained personnel and general technics are discussed.

This article discusses the examination of a document for any alterations. Many alterations and changes in documents can be detected, often by a single key test. Visual, ultraviolet, infrared, or chemical tests may disclose erasures. Differences in pens, inks, or pencils, or an improper sequence of intersecting strokes, or of strokes and folds, may reveal additions. So may crowding and abnormal alignment. However, there are still many challenges faced in proving that am document has been unaltered. The proof that a paper is unaltered is a challenging problem. It is an important one for here the document examiner must support the genuine. In most circumstances this proof is essential to maintain the validity of a disputed document. Unfortunately, there is no single test which will establish the unaltered status of a document. Genuineness, that is the state of being unaltered, is only proven by showing that there has been no alteration, or more specifically that no fraudulent act has been committed. What actual tests need to be made depends upon the document and the changes which may have or are alleged to have been made. There are also several factors that must be considered in examining documents. One of them is the presence of erasures.

This section presents several abstracts relating to police science. "Murder in New South Wales," by R. W. Mackenzie; "Handwriting Examinations," by P. F. Clark; "Erroneous Blood Alcohol Findings at Autopsy," by Henry W. Turkel and Houghton Gifford; "Tool Mark Examination Techniques," by David Q. Burd and Roger S. Greene; "Lie-Detector Test Limitations," by Fred E. Inbau.

This article presents information on activities taking place in the U.S. in the context of criminal law. International Penal and Penitentiary Commission Conference was held at the Palais Federal in Berne, August 2-17. It was opened on behalf of the Swiss Government by Federal Councilor von Steiger, and was attended by some twenty delegates from the following countries--Belgium, Denmark, Austria, United States, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Czechoslovakia and Switzerland. China and Siam were represented by observers. The biological aspects of handwriting and its identification have never received the attention that they deserve. As reported by one investigator, testators are in the majority of cases people advanced in age who on one occasion or another have been under the care of a physician, usually a general practitioner. As the physician may be called as a witness or expert witness in cases involving contested wills, he should have a general picture of the questions with which he is likely to be confronted.

The article reports that the effects of hypnosis on handwriting forms an interesting but virtually untouched field of research. To the handwriting expert certain phases of such experiments can reveal valuable information. In particular two distinct problems are of interest: (1) The effect of hypnosis in forgery, and (2) the influence of suggested age while in a hypnotic trance on the natural writing of the subject. In order to arrive at some conclusions to questions raised by these problems the writer has begun a series of experiments in which he is now making a report of work in progress. In the past two decades, several experiments have been conducted in American universities in which the abilities of hypnotized persons have been compared with the abilities of the same persons in the normal state. It has been shown that certain abilities are greater in the trance than in the normal state; for example, psychologists have found that some persons, while in the trance, can recall memories of their childhood which are not available to them in their waking state.

This article cites an experimental study of the identification of one's own handwriting, with discussing various theories and certain legal implications in the outcome of this study. The experiment was begun with 181 university students as subjects, all of whom were members of an evening class in General Psychology at the George Washington University. All materials such as, copy, paper, and pencils, and instructions throughout the entire experiment were uniform for all subjects. Samples of handwriting were obtained from the 181 subjects, grouped in two of 77 and 88 students, during 35 minutes of a regular 50-minute class period. In the study, 59.8 per cent of the subjects have made some type of error in identifying their own handwriting. It is clarified that the legal procedure in presenting handwriting to a witness for opinion evidence generally does not permit the lay witness to make visual comparisons. The principal psychological significance of an experiment on the identification of one's own handwriting is based upon handwriting as overt behavior. A second psychological factor, which was prominent throughout the identification test series, was rationalization by the subjects. Every letter from a to z, and each number from 0 through 9, was mentioned by some subject in justification of his selection of handwriting samples.

Presents information on the study of graphology or the analysis of handwriting. Purpose of the study of graphology; Role of handwriting in the determination of an individual's personality; Relationship of handwriting with personality.

Deals with a study regarding the ability of untrained persons to judge personality qualities from handwriting samples. Background on graphological analysis; Ways by which the handwriting were presented to the untrained judges; Results of the rating of neuroticism from the handwritings.

Discusses character diagnosis through analysis of dream content. Definition of character and temperament; Conditions of dreams and their structure; Advantage of analyzing dreams over other materials such behavior in everyday life or handwriting.

Examines the system of graphology of metaphysician Ludwig Klages. Conflict between the soul and mind; Elements of personality; Relationship between human movements and personality; Information on handwriting.

Addresses the role of heredity and environment in the differences of fundamental traits among identical twins. Impact of handwriting in the study of personality; Use of psychographological technique in identifying the differences; Association of the inheritance of dispositional qualities with certain inconspicuous or non-imitative features of handwriting.

Comments on the study conducted by O. L. Harvey regarding handwriting measurement and personality tests. List of principles and rules which have been established by empirical and experimental studies in handwriting; Interrelations between certain handwriting traits; Minor flaws of Harvey's method.

Presents the study which investigates the measurement of handwriting. Aims of the study; Correlations between certainly selected handwriting measures and scores on personality scales; Conclusions of the study.

Explores the possibility of producing an identical handwriting by different persons. Criteria to determine that handwritings are identical, according to forensic experts; Similarities in the handwritings of identical sisters; Dissimilarities in the handwritings of identical sisters.

Presents a research focusing on the self-expression of identical twins in handwriting and drawing. Influence of the environment on identical twins; Explanation of the main principles on which the psychological interpretation of handwriting is based; Role of imitation in the formation of an individual handwriting.

The article presents technical abstracts and notes related to police science. A study published in the December 1956 issue of the Journal of Applied Physics has proposed carbon as an ideal material for making replicas for obtaining fine detail in electron microscopy. The value of the technique in forensic science is obvious and should become available with the more widespread use of electron microscopes. The article entitled Standards for Comparison published in The Document Examiner and Scientific Detective discussed various problems of preparing good standards for handwriting identification. The special value of this article is the illustration from a case in which identifying the writer of a denied signature would have been impossible or extremely difficult if only request specimens were available. A very practical discussion of taking statements, a primary police function, was published in the January 1957 issue of Law and Order. It offers techniques and procedures that are helpful in the problem of taking statements in criminal investigations. An article which appeared in the January 1957 issue of the Journal of Forensic Sciences explored the use of expert testimony in the trial of lawsuits and the fee that the expert is entitled to request for his services.

This article presents a number of considerations pertinent to the scientific identification of individuals via their handprinting. Specialists devoting their full attention to the examination of questioned documents share a measure of responsibility for failing to lay bare the facts that the identification of handprinting requires the same techniques as the identification of cursive script and that the identification of handprinting merits additional treatment and emphasis. For purposes of this paper, script is defined broadly as the conventional style of modern cursive handwriting, the sort of penmanship commonly used by most of us in the normal course of our business and correspondence. The initial step in a handprinting investigation should be the determination whether the questioned printing and the standard printing were accomplished with (1) a fluency of normal movement and a certainty of execution indicative of familiarity with and a measure of skill in handprinting, or conversely, (2) a conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting either unfamiliarity with or disguise in the subject handprinting. Examiners should impress upon field investigators and other submitting cases to them that regular-course-of-business standards and request standards complement each other and are equally necessary in complex printing cases.

This article discusses the use of handwriting identification in proving the innocence of Christopher Emanuel Ballestrero, who was accused of armed robbery of the Prudential Insurance Co. of America in New York City on July 9, 1952. Former State Senator Frank D. O'Connor was retained as defense counsel of Ballestrero. One of his first steps to verify his client's claim of innocence was to retain the services of a handwriting identification expert. In lettering the robbery note the hold-up man had misspelled the last word, drawer, writing it as draw. For some unknown reason Ballestrero left off the er of the same word in one of the six samples he prepared. One of the basic premises of handwriting identification is that two specimens of handwriting or handlettering must have been prepared by different writers if they contain a series of repeated differences. Ballestrero forms a G by two separate strokes. He takes the pen from the paper at the end of the C portion and then writes separately an inverted L to form the horizontal bar and downstroke. In contrast, the three G's in the robbery note are written continuously. The relative or proportional size of characters plays an important role in identifying handprinting.

This article discusses the fundamental factors that must be considered in handwriting classification. A classification is arrived at by determining the things that do not belong together. A process of analysis and separation has to take place and for handwriting this was a prolonged and complicated task. Considerable experimentation showed that 6 major divisions, adaptable to measurement proved to be an adequate breakdown of the first set of graphic factors. These factors are speed, size, slant, spacing, pressure and form. The method of comparison was resorted to, due to the limitation of experimental conditions. To set up a series of scales of millimeter measures would so enlarge the field as to make practical work impossible. The scale for slant is very simple. Slant is a matter of measuring variations from the vertical. There are few scripts that hold strictly to the rigid upright. These prove to be quite special for it takes more than the usual powers of steadiness and concentration never to waver when writing. Pressure and form are the two most difficult measures to estimate. Pressure can be arranged along a continuum extending from the lightest stroke to the most exaggerated dark stroke which is made with a pressure so strong as to pierce a paper.

It is widely assumed that the constriction or expansiveness of a person's graphic expression is in some sense indicative of his personality. While a similar interpretation of graphic constriction and expansiveness also is offered in much of the work on handwriting interpretation and on the consistency shown among various kinds of expressive behavior in the same individual, it is often argued that just the reverse can occur. Graphic constriction or expansiveness, then, may serve either as a reflection of social introversion-extraversion tendencies, or, alternatively, as a safe level on which to displace behavior tendencies undergoing overt inhibition. A person's claiming to want isolation from others may be viewed as one adaptation to the presence of others in his surroundings. If the individual's adaptation of social introversion is successful, as indicated by an absence of anxiety, then such introversion should be reflected in his covert behavior too, since no strong contrary need is being inhibited from the sphere of overt conduct.

The purpose of this experiment was to test the hypothesis that certain objectively measurable handwriting signs can be used to discriminate individual differences in one or more of five selected personality traits. By virtue of their comparative unambiguity and susceptibility to graphological analysis, the following trait dimensions were selected for this study intelligence, emotional stability, dominance, cultured mind, and highstrung temperament. The graphological criteria were selected on the grounds of objective measurability and because the literature of experimental graphology suggested they might have some diagnostic value for the traits in question. They include the following handwriting signs (a) mid-zone height, (b) upper-zone height, (c) lower-zone height, (d) mid-zone breadth, (e) upper zone breadth, (f) lower zone breadth, (g) mid-zone height divided by upper zone height, (h) mid-zone height divided by lower-zone height, (1) lower-zone height divided by upper-zone height, (j) mid-zone breadth divided by mid-zone height, (Fe) upper-zone breadth divided by mid-zone height, (1) lower-zone breadth divided by mid-zone height, (m) total expanse, (it) capital height, (o) capital-height ratio, found by dividing capital height by the sum of mid-zone height and upper-zone height.

The article focuses on factor analysis of some handwriting characteristics. Graphology has had a long history as a technique for character and personality study. Despite the fact, there is relatively little evidence in the literature to support its claims, and its validity remains in doubt. One important difficulty has been the lack of procedures for measuring graphological characteristics. Researchers Thea S. Lewison and J. Zubin, in their classic monograph on handwriting analysis, have attacked the problem brilliantly. A related problem is the one of isolating those handwriting characteristics that are in some sense basic to the domain. The study reported in the article had as its principal objective the isolation and identification of some of the factors descriptive of handwriting. A group of 200 right-handed graduate psychology students with a median age of 27 were used as subjects of the study. Each subject was asked to write in pen and ink, as a test of imagination, a full-page story on a standard sheet of unruled bond paper, when presented with a TAT card.

This article presents the results of the test which a graphologist took to support her claim that she could tell the difference between the handwritings of abnormal and normal people, or whatever the difference is between people who get in and those who manage to stay out of mental hospitals. The mean number of folders correctly estimated by the 25 unsophisticated judges is 51, the range, from 2 to 8 correctly judged folders. One unsophisticated judge made correct choices for 8 folders. Theoretically, with 25 judges at least one of them is expected to get 8 folders correct by chance. The 20-year-old girl who judges 8 pairs correctly is a college undergraduate who has had one course in psychology and expresses no particular interest in graphology. It should be noted that the best unsophisticated judge, by missing one of the most difficult folders and also one of the easiest, further substantiated the probably chance nature of the estimates made by this subject. The graphologist made six correct judgments. Six pairs judged correctly corresponds approximately to a probability of 37, which is hardly significantly different from chance expectancy. In addition, the graphologist also missed one of the easiest pairs.

The article discusses a study which examined the legibility and quality of handwriting of elementary and junior high school students in Wisconsin. Handwriting samples were measured and analyzed based on the following handwriting factors: legibility, size of letters, slant, uniformity of size and uniformity of slant. Findings indicate that girls write better than boys and write with a different slant than boys.

Focuses on a study which compared the quality of the handwriting between left- and right-handed students. Analysis of students' handwriting; Quality of the handwriting of left-handed students; Implications of the study findings for handwriting instruction.

The article discusses the deteriorated state of handwriting in the U.S. This discussion has been based largely on the opinions of teachers and employers of people who have the responsibility of producing legible and accurate written records. Conventional wisdom tells us that the relationship between intelligence and handwriting is close to zero. And we know that children in the middle grades have a more legible handwriting than they will have later as adults when they write for many purposes, under a wide variety of conditions, and frequently under severe limitations of time.

The article focuses on the impact of the introduction of cursive handwriting among elementary pupils in the U.S. Many teachers contend that cursive writing should be introduced before midyear in second grade because children at this time already have the necessary skill and interest. However, the retention of manuscript as the main tool in writing during cursive introduction helps prevent interruptions in the progress of reading. Both are needed and should be learned efficiently.

The article presents information related to the use of Italic handwriting in the United States. The writing style is not really new but a slight alteration of minuscule script, a style used for writing manuscripts before the age of printing. The style revived by Edward Johnston, a calligrapher. The style was accepted for the U.S. schools in what became known as manuscript writing. The writing style is now used in 85 percent of the schools as an introductory style of writing in the first two grades.

This article focuses on the use of graphology in interpreting the changing attitudes of teenage girls. It is noted that graphology points out a dynamic relationship between the specific content and the expressive movement. The test showing the highest correlation with the graphological interpretation was the Machover Figure Drawing Test. The test is said to be a free expression of attitudes, relating essentially to the body image while handwriting is more strongly influenced by cultural stereotypes and their subcultural and individual modifications.

The article cites the diagnostic teaching of handwriting in the U.S. The author found out that handwriting is the worst taught, the most neglected, and the least understood subject in elementary school. Both teachers and pupils are in a chronic state of discouragement in doing the handwriting exercises.

The article offers information about that study that aimed to determine ways to improve the rate and quality of handwriting of students in Ohio. The experiment was undertaken by Loren A. Rogers in his own classroom in the Ross Township Centralized School in Greene County, Ohio. Results of his work revealed that the class ranked, on the average, about third grade quality and eighth grade in rate. It further implicates that there was a wide range in scores in both quality and rate of writing.

The article discusses the developments in the form of handwriting among students in secondary education in the U.S. A study found that the development of a critical attitude on the part of children toward the appearance of their handwriting is an objective that should be emphasized in the second grade. Personal evaluation in the quality of handwriting by the students help them discover the elements acceptable form rather than to secure conformity to requirements imposed by the teacher.

The article discusses the problems in achieving a good handwriting. The psychology of writing analyzes the problem leaning to the positive side. However, this study looks into the negative phase of the psychology and tries to answer the question of why teaching does not obtain a better handwriting. Suggestions are presented with the investigation of the opinions why people do not tend to make their writing better.

Focuses on a study which examined the comparative accuracy of the Gettysburg edition and the three-slant edition of Ayres Handwriting Scale. Techniques used to analyze accuracy of the Ayres Handwriting Scales; Quality of the Gettysburg edition; Average error rate in both editions.

The article discusses the study of the Ayres Measuring Scale for Handwriting to determine the use of an objective scale for grading handwriting. The investigation has consisted of the collection of a large number of handwriting grades assigned by different persons working under various conditions and of a study of its variability. Furthermore, it has revealed that miscellaneous graders vary widely in their use of the Ayres scale when their only training in tis use is independent practice.

The article focuses on a study with the objective of determining whether all graders are influenced by the factor of essay neatness and whether an interaction exists between the writing clarity of graders and the neatness of the essay papers which they grade. It was hypothesized that graders who have neat, clear handwriting will unintentionally lower their evaluation of an essay containing near-illegible handwriting, whereas graders who are themselves messy handwriters will not subjectively penalize the student who turns in an essay containing messy writing. The results of this study indicate that an interaction exists between the handwriting neatness of a grader and the legibility of the essay paper which he wades. Specifically, this experiment shows that graders who have neat handwriting are biased by the neatness of an essay-biased in the direction of giving lower grades to essays that contain messy handwriting. Graders who have messy handwriting however, are not influenced by the neatness of essays. For those who continue to use essay examinations, certain precautions should be taken to lessen the effect of extraneous factors such as handwriting neatness.

This article presents information on a study to determine the effects of four typeface and one handwriting graphics styles on the level and reliability of grading in essays. A result that should be noted is that the replication resulted in higher marks awarded to the second set of themes across all five graphics variables scored by each group. This finding is difficult to account for but it may reflect the operation of the first five themes or some of them as a frame of reference against which the final five themes were compared. Conceivably the raters may have been more conservative in grading the first themes because they did not know what to expect and did not wish to grade the first themes too highly, then be unable to correct their overgrading. According to the experimental conditions, they were unable to change any grades later. Conceivably the raters then graded the later themes more leniently because they believed they had established a reasonable expectation of the level of quality of the themes overall. The leniency effect, the fact that themes graded later received higher grades than themes graded earlier, is empirical evidence for the well established inconsistency of essay graders and documents one source of it, namely, variation over time.

The present study investigates the relationship between the expression of tempo and expansiveness in handwriting and two temperamental traits, extraversion and neuroticism, that have been claimed by sociologist H.J. Eysenck to be basic dimensions in personality. These traits have been operationally defined for this study as the scores on the E and N scales of Eysenck's MPI. The extraversion items refer to such topics as liveliness, social initiative, gregariousness, and a preference for action over thought. In other words, persons who score high on the E scale could be expected to invest more energy into external activities than those who score low. The traditional methods used for interpreting personality from handwriting have been complex signs, unanalyzed intuitions, and inferences by analogy. Graphologists have objected to attempts to relate simple objective signs in the handwriting to single personality traits on the grounds that such attempts violate the complexities of the relationship. Among the characteristics, which graphologists traditionally look for in handwriting are signs of the degree to which the writer constricts or releases the investment of energy in his activities.