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Because of the sparcity of research on infants' response to social events, especially different categories of people, infants between 8 and 18 months of age were introduced to five different social events: strange adult male and female, strange 4-year-old female, mother, and self. The infants' responses indicated that approach affects stimulus differentiation (in terms of fear), while age affects level of response intensity. Strangeness of the social event was not sufficient to explain the results, and ethological and cognitive theories are discussed. It is suggested that the cognitive construct of self be introduced to explain the results. It appears reasonable to assume that by eight months the self as differentiated from other is well established, and some specific categories of self, such as size, sex, or efficacy, may also be established. (Author/LH)

Underlying this essay on psycholinguistic theory is the belief that language teachers often suffer from neurotic symptoms of confusion, anxiety, and uncertainty in connection with their work. The author discusses his "BALT" theory (battered language teachers). Philosophically-oriented remarks are directed toward teachers wishing to redirect their educational philosophy and teach through a heightening and expansion of their own personal consciousness. A direct analogy between Charles A. Reich's "The Greening of America" and Jakobovits' ideas concerning 'consciousness' and 'freedom' is evident throughout this paper. It is the author's hope that a widespread conversion among language teachers of the 'old school,' based on the premises of freedom in psycholinguistic and pedagogical areas, rather than on intellectual servitude, will be forthcoming. (RL)

Three reliably different levels of anxiety produced in Ss during cognitive rehearsals of approaching feared objects did not lead to differential decreases of avoidance or fear in the presence of the feared object. Ss designated as Repressors on the Byrne R-S scale improved least. The amount of fear reported by Repressors during visualization was substantially related to ineffectiveness of treatment, and fear and avoidance were highly related. Similar results were not obtained from Sensitizers or an Intermediate group. Items in a fear history questionnaire were significantly related to amount of avoidance after treatment. (Author)

Subjects (communicators) were more likely to transmit bad news (p.005) and less likely to be concerned about what the recipient thought about them (p.025) if, from the communicator's perspective, the recipient believed that both she and the communicator would receive the bad news fate than if the recipient believed only she would receive the bad news fate. These results were consistent with a fear of negative evaluation hypothesis. A guilt hypothesis was not signigicantly supported. Although communicators who believed that they would not actually share the fate with the recipient felt significantly more guilty (p.005) than communicators who believed that they would actually share the bad news fate, they did not transmit the bad news significantly less frequently. (Author)

There is an assumed relationship between a person's self-esteem, speech anxiety, and low cognitive complexity, but further research is needed for support of this premise. An important question to explore is how a child with speech anxiety (lack of confidence in communication situations) perceives others. Based on balance theory, the answer is that he sees others as a reliable source of information and, therefore, as a threat to his cognitive structure. A counselor for children with such anxieties will be better able to assist them if he has some insight into how others and the counselor himself are perceived by the clients. The difficulty for the counselor is that those with low self-esteem will tend to disbelieve any positive reinforcement they are given. The logical extension for the original premise would be to seek methods whereby an individual could learn to use a larger number of constructs in his interpersonal relationships in order to develop more ability to recognize resources in others. (RN)

The purposes of the study reported in this document were to investigate the relationship between children's manifest anxiety and their perceptions of negative environmental stimuli, and to determine the effects of socioeconomic status (SES) and race on both of these variables. The hypotheses tested concerned: (a) the degree of anxiety manifested by children from different SES, race, and sex groups; (b) the frequency of negative environmental stimuli perceived by children from different SES, race, and sex groups; and (c) the relationship between degree of anxiety manifested and frequency of negative environmental stimuli. Additional data were collected concerning the quality of negative environmental stimuli perceived by children from each group. The instrument used to measure anxiety was the General Anxiety Questionnaire, which incorporates items from the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale and the General Anxiety Scale for Children. All subjects were sixth-grade pupils from four Philadelphia schools. Each school represented one of four SES-racial combinations: lower SES black, lower SES white, middle SES black, and middle SES white. Three hundred and fifty-one pupils--three classes from each school--participated in the study. The instruments were administered to an entire class at one sitting. [Tables following the text of this paper are only marginally legible.] (Author/JM)

Separation and greeting responses were examined in a longitudinal study of 26 infants, aged 15 to 54 weeks, observed at home. All instances of a person's leaving and entering the room during home visits were observed. The developmental trend--both onset and relative frequency--of each separation behavior was plotted at three-week intervals. The onset of these behaviors was found to be earlier than most other investigators have reported. Following the mother upon her departure and greeting her positively upon her return were found to be more frequent than crying upon separation. Following showed the only sex difference; boys followed more than girls. Crying was more frequent when the infant was left confined rather than free to move about. Separation protest was differential to the mother from its onset, whereas following was not. Most positive greeting behaviors were differential, but smiling was not, seemingly serving affiliative as well as attachment functions. Infants when left totally alone are more likely to exhibit separation-related behaviors than when left with companions; this finding is interpreted in the light of Bowlby's ethological-evolutionary model of social development. (Author)

The cognitive development of 30 24-month-old children who had entered residential care before the age of four months was compared with that of 30 working class children matched for age and sex who were living at home in London. Before testing, the children's fear of strangers was rated in a standardized situation. The mean mental age of the residential nursery children was 22 months. Also in a play situation., these children vocalized less than the home children. The inferior performance of the residential children is discussed in terms of their nursery environment, their genetic potential and their limited experience with strangers. (Author/WY)

This study: (1) determines and quantifies the degree of fear expressed by graduate students at Arizona State University toward a research methods course (EF 500); identifies graduate students who indicate a high measure of anxiety for EF 500; and (3) compares them with students in whom measured fear is expressed to a low degree, is absent, or is denied. One hundred and eighteen graduate students were administered an attitude scale with five positions of equal value used to determine the degree of fear. Results indicated: (1) males and females showed little difference in fear expressed toward the course; (2) no significant differences were found between the older and younger students; (3) elementary and secondary teachers expressed no mean fear differences of significance; (4) the significance in differences between those in education and others may be related to the "person-oriented, thing-oriented concepts"; (5) the difference in fear expressed was not significant between those who had many graduate hours and those who had few; and (6) there was no significant difference shown between teachers who had little or a great deal of experience. (MJM)

The purpose of this pamphlet is to increase teachers' comprehension of anxiety and its relation to children's thinking and forgetting, to their problem solving ability and their sense of competence. The pamphlet describes four parts of the anxiety experience: 1) the anxiety cue, the particular thought, memory, or sensation which precipitates the anxiety affect; 2) the anxiety affect, emotion somewhat like that experienced in fear, which is unpleasant and demands relief; 3) the primary anxiety reaction, a defensive or withdrawing move by the anxious person; and 4) the adaptive anxiety reaction, a self-concept or considerable courage to face fear. The pamphlet also examines stages in danger judgment, ways of reacting to danger, and the function of purposeful forgetting which becomes habitual when the danger is unavoidable and beyond mastery. The booklet concludes by providing teachers with cues for identifying anxiety in the classroom, and with specific strategies for helping the student to cope with that anxiety. (Author/LAA)

The present study was designed to test hypotheses derived from Horner's theory concerning the effect of the sex-role orientation of the situation on the arousal of the motive to avoid success in women. The study compared the performance of women high and low in the motive to avoid success in a male-oriented and a female-oriented situation. It was found that women performed significantly better (p.01) in the male-oriented than in the female-oriented situation, with this difference between conditions being greater for those women scoring high rather than low in the motive to avoid success (p.05). These results are inconsistent with an inhibitory anxiety explanation of motive to avoid success. The possibility that the measure of this motive may in part be a measure of ability is discussed. (Author)

The booklet addresses the problems of vulnerable children with suggestions child care center workers may use both for recognizing signs of handicaps in children and helping children overcome existing handicaps. The vulnerable child is defined as a child who may be overwhelmed by physical and/or emotional handicaps and thus is at risk of later mental illness. Throughout, short case studies are given to illustrate a child's activity or attitude in relation to a handicap and the staff member's role, which might include referral or a planned strategy. Physical handicaps are discussed in terms of motor difficulties, poor vision, loss of hearing, allergies, and special sensitivities such as giddiness on a merry-go-round. Emotional vulnerability is seen in children with a poor start in life, anxiety, slow social development, and combined handicaps. The care worker is advised to recognize children's fears as normal and to know ways to deal with fears such as holding a child on the lap in a close embrace when thunder rolls. Considered are children who experience stress from events such as a tornado and subsequently exhibit stress signs (regressive behavior or appetite loss), which can be overcome by constant teacher reassurance and acting out games. (For other booklets in the series see EC 052 600 through EC 052 603). (MC)

Concerning the issues of emotional development, general agreement can only be reached on the definition of "emotional" behavior. Behavior is emotional when it varies from an individual's behavioral baseline by the addition of three components: (1) an action component, (2) an arousal component, and (3) a subjective "feeling" component. In all areas of infantile emotion researchers have attempted to delineate such basic groundwork as "primitive, unlearned emotions," but subsequent study has indicated that their conclusions are more the result of situational and subjective factors than of measurable, objective data. Infant emotions are divided into negative and positive categories in this paper. Discussion of specific emotions includes fear of strangers and maternal attachment, other fears and anxiety. A broad developmental outline of responses to fear-inducing stimuli is given. Other negative emotions, such as anger, depression, and shame are discussed. The paper also outlines some of the work that has been done with positive emotions and concludes with comments on the functional significance of emotions in early development. (MH)

To vicariously condition either fear or a positive emotional response, films in which a 5-year-old male model manifested one or the other response were shown to nursery school children. The measure of vicarious conditioning was the children's rate of response to the conditioned stimulus and a controlled stimulus in several operant situations after watching the film. In Experiments 1 and 2, fear responses were vicariously conditioned; after viewing the film, the children rated lower in operant responses to the fear stimulus than to the control stimulus. In Experiments 3 and 4, after viewing a positive film, the children showed a higher rate of operant response to the positive emotional stimulus than to the control stimulus. The experiments show that human operant responses can be affected by both vicarious fear conditioning and vicarious positive emotional conditioning. In all experiments the conditioning effect was short term and easily neutralized. Further research suggested includes: consideration of the age factor; use of live models rather than films; and reduction of experimenter bias, expectations, and generalization by employment of automated apparatus and maximally different test stimuli. References and appendix are included. (AJ)

Recent attention has been focused on the possibility that some women may fear success in competitive achievement situations. The present research suggested that fear of success might be mediated by an anxiety process of a self-presentational process. Experiments were conducted which attempted to distinguish between the two. In addition, studies were conducted to assess (1) the concept of dissimulation, (2) the "real world" effects of fear of success in a competitive academic environment, and (3) the negative consequences which result from being a relatively successful woman. The results indicated that: the performance decrement of high fear of success in women is less robust than previously thought; dissimulation is acknowledged by women in subtle forms and under rather specified conditions; fear of success does affect academic behavior, though nor necessarily academic performance, in the real world for both sexes; and whereas relatively successful women are perceived to possess traditionally masculine traits (e.g., intelligence), these traits are evaluated negatively rather than positively. Implications and future research direction were discussed. (Author)

This document describes the research activities of the Syracuse University Evaluation and Research Center for the year September 1, 1966 through August 31, 1967. This final report is organized on the basis of six research projects, which have been abstracted under the following titles and numbers: (1) Experiments in Grammatical Processing in Children (PS 001 531); (2) Acquisition and Transfer Differences Between Kindergarteners and Second-graders on Aurally and Visually Presented Paired-associates Using an A-B, A-C Design (PS 001 532); (3) Concept Identification Strategies (PS 001 533); (4) Fear and Attachment in Young Children (PS 001 534); (5) Evaluating Behavioral Change During a Six-Week Pre-kindergarten Intervention Experience (PS 001 535); and (6) Variables Affecting the Performance of Young Children on a Letter Descrimination Task (PS 001 009 or ED 020 797). (WD)

HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS ENROLLED IN FOUR DRIVER EDUCATION CLASSES WERE SHOWN A TRAFFIC SAFETY FILM, THEN TESTED FOR INFORMATION RETENTION AFTER 10 MINUTES AND AGAIN AFTER 1 WEEK. FORGETTING WAS DEFINED AS A CORRECT RESPONSE ON THE FIRST TEST BUT NOT ON THE SECOND, WHILE REMINISCENCE WAS DEFINED AS THE CONVERSE. RETENTION WAS DEFINED AS A CORRECT RESPONSE BOTH TIMES. ANXIETY AROUSAL DURING FILM PRESENTATION WAS MEASURED VIA GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE AND PLOTTED THROUGH SUCCESSIVE MINUTES OF THE FILM. THE PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS THAT FORGETTING, RETENTION, AND REMINISCENCE WOULD BE ASSOCIATED WITH SMALLER, MEDIUM, AND LARGER INCREASES IN AROUSAL NEAR THE MOMENT OF PRESENTATION WAS SUPPORTED. THIS FINDING RUNS COUNTER TO A BELIEF OFTEN EXPRESSED IN THE LITERATURE (BUT, AS POINTED OUT IN A LENGTHY REVIEW IN THIS REPORT, NOT SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE) THAT COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS DEPENDS ON A LOW LEVEL OF ANXIETY AROUSAL OR AN AROUSAL REDUCTION. THESE RESULTS IMPLY THAT TRAFFIC SAFETY FILMS (FOR INSTANCE) MAY BE MORE EFFECTIVE IF ANXIETY OR FEAR IS AROUSED. A COROLLARY CONCLUSION IS THAT AN EFFECTIVE FILM SHOULD ALTERNATE SEQUENCES THAT AROUSE AND REDUCE ANXIETY, WITH INFORMATION PRESENTED AT MOMENTS OF ANXIETY AROUSAL ONLY. CONTENT OF ANXIETY-AROUSING SEQUENCES NEED NOT BE PERTINENT TO INFORMATION TO BE RETAINED. IN A METHODOLOGICAL ASIDE, THE AUTHORS STRESS THE NECESSITY FOR A DELAYED TEST OF INFORMATION RETENTION, BECAUSE OF THE REMINISCENCE PHENOMENON. (BP)

TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS OFTEN CONCEAL THE TRUE NATURE OF A SCHOOL BECAUSE THEY FEAR THE JUDGMENTS OF THEIR SUPERVISORS. THIS CONSCIOUS DECEPTION BECOMES AN UNCONSCIOUS SELF-DECEPTION, WHICH IS GENERATED IN THE SAME WAY THAT NEUROTIC DEFENSES ARE DEVELOPED. WHEN TEACHERS MUST TEACH FEARING THAT THEIR CAREERS ARE IN JEOPARDY, CREATIVE AND DEMOCRATIC PROCESSES ARE DESTROYED. THIS ARTICLE WAS PUBLISHED IN "PHI DELTA KAPPAN," VOLUME 48, NUMBER 7, MARCH 1967. (NH)

Abstracts of important findings on the relationship between fear and communication are presented and attention is drawn to the conflicting nature of the evidence. (Author)

To determine if sex differences exist in the development of fear of success, 120 male and female subjects between nine and 17 years of age were given male or female verbal cues from which they were asked to write themes. Sex differences in fear of success motivation were not found. (Author/CS)

This study of 9 to 10-month-old fearful and non-fearful males examined the relationship of cognitive and affective variables to fear of strangers. (DP)

A test of the levels of physiological arousal in subjects asked to perform in interpersonal communication environments. (CH)

Reports two studies of effects of high and low fear messages about drugs. In the first study three levels of threat appeal about marijuana were used. The second study concerned attitudes toward a non-existent drug-MOT. The effects of fear level for MOT were very large and indicate that high fear appeals are superior. (Author)

Reviews research which demonstrates that responses from different behavior systems to a given stimulus situation may be far from perfectly correlated with each other. Discusses the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of these systems and the roles of both the species and the individual in bringing the systems into mutual correspondence. (Author/SDH)

This study investigated the self-reported fears and some personality characteristics of a sample of 1112 adolescents ranging in age from 12 to 18 years (attending grammar and secondary schools in Northern Ireland). (CS)

Coping behavior was assessed for 74 children, at 2-1/2 years of age in an experimental barrier situation and at 7-1/2 years of age a novel play situation. Analyses indicate relationships between effective coping behaviors and other measures of child development in the preschool and early school-age periods. (SDH)

A study was conducted to: (1) compare mothers and daughters on their needs for achievement and affiliation and their attitudes to success and failure; and (2) relate the mother's child-raising practices to the daughter's needs. Questionnaires were filled out by mothers and children, and observations of mother-child interaction were made. Ss were 21 fifth-grade girls and their mothers. Ss were tested for need for achievement, need for affiliation, fear of success, and fear of failure. Results seem to indicate that if girls are influenced by their mothers' needs at all, it is toward being unlike their mothers in terms of motivational patterns. The only exception is fear of success, where daughters seem to hold attitudes similar to their mother's. All the subscales derived from the mothers' reports of their child-raising practices, from the girls' reports of their interactions with their mothers, and from the E's observations of the mother's behavior toward the child were entered in a stepwise multiple regression equation to predict need for achievement, fear of failure, and need for affiliation. A strong tendency emerged for girls who are high on need for achievement to also be high on need for affiliation. Their mothers made demands for independent behavior early and are now allowing their daughters independence. (KM)

A psychoanalytic case study of an emotionally disturbed boy, the book presents verbatim reports of conversations between the child and therapist which took place for the better part of a year. The therapist's interpretations of the dialogue are included. A selection from the analysis of the boy's mother and followup notes on the son are also presented. (RJ)

Articles on psychoanalytic theory concern libidinal object constancy and mental representation, the unrememberable and unforgettable (repression), and the motive, meaning, and causality of anthropomorphism. Discussions of normal and pathological development include the following: levels of verbal communication in the schizophrenic child, a review of a film dealing with 9 days in a residential nursery, the fetish and the transitional object, the imaginary companion, dreams as visual superego forerunners, the vicissitude of childish omnipotence, the psychology of artistic creativity, ambiguous wording in relation to a toilet phobia, and the development of a psychic apparatus. Clinical studies are concerned with borderline states, diagnosis of paranoia, analysis in relation to developmental stages, drug use in adolescents, and effects of parent death. Studies of the applications of analysis are presented on criminal law in riot control and the relationship of creative activity and intrapsychic functioning in the poetry of Keats. (JM)

The personality development during the first 5 years of life consists of several stages, and each developmental phase brings with it characteristic problems. Training of the intellect must be included in the education of a child. Reason and judgment should be removed as far as possible from magic, self-gratification and egocentric motives. The parents' methods of helping the child's mental development, self-control, and intellectual growth must take into account the child's own stage of development and his mental equipment at that stage. Parents may be inexperienced and may sometimes employ a wrong method; but if the bonds between parents and child are strong and provide the incentives for growth and development, they have an excellent chance of rearing a healthy child. (NT)

Data from subjective reports, objective performance measures, and physiological studies indicate that flight training per se places a great deal of stress on the trainee. In military flight training additional stresses are involved that may markedly increase the importance of reaction to threat of physical harm. This paper reports efforts to develop measures of reaction to physical harm threat and measures of change of confidence in ability to cope with that threat for use in the secondary selection process in U.S. Army aviation. The Background Activity Inventory test was used for assessing the stress component and the Situational Confidence Measures for the confidence component. The study showed that the confidence measure held up well. The stress measures were less stable. (Author/PT)

The nature, origin, and treatment of infantile autism are explored with a consideration of the child's world of encounter and case histories. The beginning of life, called the region of shadows, is mentioned; and the world of the newborn, body language, mutuality, autonomy, the autistic anlage, and the right side of time are examined for the beginning of the self. Disturbed children are considered as strangers to life and the development of emotional disturbance is discussed in terms of a reason to act, the extinction of feeling, extreme situations, and in spontaneous reaction. In particular, the dynamics of autism, including the dialectics of hope, the decline of the self, and the human craving for order are presented. Case histories are given of three autistic children treated at the Orthogenic School at the University of Chicago: Laurie and Marcia, two mute girls; and Joey, a talking, mechanical boy. In persistence of a myth, reported cases of wolf children are discussed in terms of autism. Finally, the writings of other scientists and the author's own beliefs on the etiology, treatment, and nature of infantile autism are considered. Thirty-three illustrations and a 193-item bibliography are included. (DF)

The objective of this project was to test the effect of the presence of a mother, compared with the presence of an adult female stranger, upon the apprehensiveness of children confronted with novel stimuli. Subjects were 10 children, 3 1/2 to 5 1/2 years old, who were individually placed in a room containing a toy cash register, a marble-race toy, and a hidden mechanical toy gorilla. Each child was accompanied either by a mother or by an assistant experimenter. Ratings were made of facial expression, movement about the room, and visual orientation over a 5-minute period when the gorilla was animated. It was predicted that behavior would differ between the subjects in a manner suggesting less initial fear and rapid dissipation of fear by those accompanied by a mother. Results were opposite to predictions. The difference in the effects of the presence of an attached individual and an unattached individual are not as marked for children 3 1/2 to 5 1/2 years old as they are for children 9 months to 2 1/2 years old. Since this study is inconclusive, other studies with additional experimental and control groups are planned. (DO)

AN ANALYSIS OF FEAR AND PREJUDICE WAS MADE THROUGH A SERIES OF ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRES, PRIVATE INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED BY TRAINED PSYCHOLOGISTS, AND A SERIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS. RESULTS SHOWED THAT PREJUDICE STARTED IN THE FIRST FEW YEARS OF A CHILD'S LIFE THROUGH HIS RELATIONSHIP WITH HIS PARENTS. THE ADULTS LOW IN PREJUDICE HAD STABLE OUTLOOKS ON LIFE, AND REALIZED THAT ALL HUMAN BEINGS WERE NOT INFALLIBLE. A LACK OF LOVE AND SECURITY COULD USUALLY BE FOUND IN THE BACKGROUNDS OF PREJUDICED PEOPLE, BECAUSE OF THIS INSECURITY, THEY PERPETUALLY EXAGGERATED THE IMPORTANCE OF AUTHORITY. THEY HAD A NEED TO BELONG THAT MADE THEM CRITICIZE AND OSTRACIZE OTHERS. ECONOMIC INSECURITY WAS OFTEN AT THE ROOT OF AN INDIVIDUAL'S PREJUDICE. LACK OF MONEY WAS COMPOUNDED BY THE LACK OF AFFECTION AND UNDERSTANDING. THUS RESENTMENT TOWARDS THE "GRASPING" AND "ACQUISITIVE" NATURE OF THE JEWS STEMMED FROM A FEELING THAT MONEY MADE THE MAN. THE INDIVIDUAL WHO WAS THE SUPERPATROIT OR THE ANTIPATRIOT WOULD ASSUME EITHER ROLE TO EXPOSE ALL OF SOCIETY'S WEAK SPOTS, THEREBY DIVERTING ATTENTION FROM HIS OWN. PREJUDICE CAN BE REDUCED BY ACCEPTING THE HARSH FACTS CONCERNING THE WORLD, ONE'S COUNTRY, AND ONESELF. IN THE AREA OF PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS SYMPATHY, UNDERSTANDING, AND ACCEPTANCE OF ONESELF AND OF OTHERS SHOULD BE LEARNED BY THE CHILD EARLY ENOUGH SO AS TO BECOME PERMANENT CHARACTER TRAITS. COMMUNICATION BETWEEN PARENTS, TEACHERS, COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION, AND LEGISLATION SHOULD BE INCREASED. THIS PAMPHLET WAS EXCERPTED FROM "THE FEARS MEN LIVE BY."

Research supported in part by Grant MH-13651-01 from the National Institute of Mental Health, U.S. Public Health Service.

Condensation of author's Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1963.