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The author analyzes the leadership role of the elementary principal through an examination of the dynamics of the leadership-followership phenomenon. Several research studies are cited which give support to the point of view that leadership characteristics of a group are invested in the followership. A person may lead, but to be followed, the leader must accept, or seem to accept, the tradition, norms, and goals of the group and assist the group in achieving the purpose the group has identified. Compatibility between the principal and the teachers in terms of close agreement of educational philosophy would appear to be necessary conditions so that a principal might function effectively. Computer matching is suggested as a vehicle for achieving the needed conditions for fostering educational change through the leadership of the principal. (Author)

Eighty items taken from three different sources were utilized to construct an instrument designed to ascertain the attitudes of pre-service elementary teachers. Three groups were utilized as subjects--students in a special program for preparation as teachers of the disadvantaged; students who were not in this program, but who were enrolled in an inner-city education class on an elective basis; and elementary education majors on the regular teacher preparation program at Ball State University. The instrument was further refined through an item analysis procedure so that fifty items with the highest discrimination power were retained. This instrument, the Sciara-Jantz Empathy Towards Poverty Scale, was utilized on a pre-test/post test basis with students and found to measure attitudes towards the disadvantaged, showing a score increase at the end of the inner-city education course. Included in the appendix is the finalized instrument. (Author)

This study is concerned with the effectiveness of teacher aides in the eight Indianapolis Model Cities Schools as perceived by themselves and others. These paraprofessional personnel were hired for two basic purposes: (1) to provide additional help to teachers and children in the classroom, and (2) to provide career opportunities for a limited number of indigenous residents from the school attendance areas. These two basic purposes were resultant from the apparent need for additional adults to whom children could relate and interact in a positive way during the school day, as well as an approach which provided employment opportunities as an encouragement for furthering the formal educational background of those hired as teacher aides. Aides who were hired from this commitment were those whom Model Cities School personnel thought would benefit both the children in the schools and themselves as teacher aides. These determinations were made primarily upon the basis of personal interviews. The formal educational background of those hired varied greatly. Some were high school graduates; others were not. A number of training sessions were held with them to assist them in upgrading their own personal skills and job skills so as to be of greater assistance in the school of their employment. (Author/JM)

AN INSTITUTE WAS CONDUCTED TO ASSIST IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGES AND SKILLS ESSENTIAL FOR TEACHING SPECIALIZED TECHNICAL COURSES. THE PARTICIPANTS WERE 16 TEACHERS IN THE TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL AREA OF INSTRUMENTATION. THE ACTIVITY INCLUDED LECTURE AND DISCUSSION, DEMONSTRATION, LABORATORY WORK, AND FIELD TRIPS. THE SCOPE OF THE PROGRAM INCLUDED MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, ELECTRONICS, MECHANICAL MEASURING PRINCIPLES, AND INSTRUMENT SHOP PRACTICES. THE INVESTIGATOR CONCLUDED THAT THE PROGRAM ADEQUATELY MET THE NEEDS OF THE PARTICIPANTS. (RS)

THE PROBLEM OF THIS RESEARCH WAS TO INVESTIGATE THE RELATIONS THAT MIGHT EXIST BETWEEN TEACHER KNOWLEDGE OF AND PRACTICES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF READING COMPREHENSION. PRELIMINARY TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS WERE A SERIES OF GENERAL QUESTIONS GROUPED UNDER THESE MAIN CATEGORIES--(1) TEACHER KNOWLEDGE OF COMPREHENSION THEORY, (2) TEACHER PRACTICES IN COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT, AND (3) RELATIONS BETWEEN TEACHER KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES. FIVE TEST INSTRUMENTS WERE INVOLVED IN THE STUDY--(1) READING COMPREHENSION THEORY TEST, (2) READING COMPREHENSION SOLICITATION-RESPONSE INVENTORY, (3) CONGRUENCE-INCONGRUENCE DIMENSION, (4) SOLICITATION-RESPONSE UNIT, AND (5) SOLICITATION-RESPONSE EPISODE. THE SAMPLE CONSISTED OF SECOND-, FOURTH-, AND SIXTH-GRADE TEACHERS DRAWN AT RANDOM FROM 16 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SAN ANGELO, TEXAS. THE STUDY RESULTS ARE PRESENTED IN TERMS OF COMPREHENSION THEORY, COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT, AND THE RELATIONS BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE. IMPLICATIONS ARE MADE FOR PRESERVICE AND INSERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION. (JC)

It was hypothesized that a reliable and valid measure of the psychological adjustment of clergymen could be obtained by constructing a sentence completion test. The items were designed to measure the following six areas: (1) self-perception, (2) interpersonal relations, (3) psychosexual maturity, (4) priesthood, (5) Church-faith, and (6) job satisfaction. A 72-item test was constructed and administered to 115 priests. The protocols were judged using an empirically based scoring manual. The results indicated that the r's for reliability ranged from .84 to .96, and the biserial r's ranged from .62 to .86 for validity, thereby supporting the hypotheses. (Author)

A project that obtained secondary data images on all nonpublic schools, secular and sectarian, in the United States is described. Original data were gathered for five in-depth case studies. This project was limited to an analysis of nonpublic schools through grade 12; it included several subdivisions. Studies on nonpublic schools were conducted in the following areas: (1) attitudinal demand, (2) present enrollment and projection of future enrollment, (3) costs and revenues with concomitant projections, (4) estimates of marginal costs to public schools resulting from nonpublic school failure, (5) in-depth analyses of costs, revenues, and marginal transfer costs in five selected cities, (6) a secondary analysis case study of determinants of enrollments in Catholic schools, and (7) an examination of criteria for aid to nonpublic schools with implications for public policy. It was found that: (1) American Catholics want their children to receive some formal religious instruction; (2) Nearly all Catholics are cognizant of the distinctiveness of both parochial and public schools; and (3) Quality assessments of educational programs, and subsequent decisions as to where to enroll one's children appear to be a function of one's personal set of education-related priorities. (For related document, see ED 058 473.) (Author/CK)

This study was conducted to obtain educational background information of secondary school students who take the College Board Chemistry Achievement Test. In 1965-66, data were gathered from 49,752 students who took the CEEB Chemistry Achievement Test. Questionnaires from 2,395 of these students were studied primarily for (1) the types of chemistry courses offered, (2) textbooks used, (3) topics studied, (4) time allotted, and (5) other secondary school courses taken. Findings indicated that despite the many variables involved, the content of secondary school chemistry did not vary greatly. Five fundamental topics were consistently taught in nearly all of these chemistry courses. Results supported the concept of nationwide chemistry achievement tests. [Not available in hardcopy due to marginal legibility of original document.] (RR)

The framework for a course in the study of man in his relationships with society, with nature, and within himself is presented. In this nongraded, student-directed course, the areas of investigation includ philosophy, art, music, history, literature, science, and architecture. Each student should produce at least one individual contribution and one group contribution each quarter. They will be evaluated on their ability to produce something creative for the course. Projects may include original poetry, student-made films, collage, musical composition, sculpture, painting, dramatic productions, or architectural models. The goal of the course is, through an expanded knowledge of man, to bring about a change of attitude and behavior in the students, which will result in their growth and maturity. Resource materials are listed. (DB)

In order to improve the reading methods course at The University of Texas, a program was designed based on tutorial instruction. At first children were brought into the university classroom, one child for every two tutors. The university students (tutors) became directly involved in teaching reading and in being responsible for children's achievement. However, despite the positive feedback from the students, children, and cooperating teachers, it was evident that the skills acquired from the course were not transferring to student teaching and/or actual teaching. An analysis of the problem suggested that the tutors were not learning how to cope with the reading instructional needs of groups of children. An attempt was made to improve the program by moving it into the public schools where a larger number of children and additional space were available. The tutors now could work with more than a single child and could become involved in planning "direct teach" and "pupil managed" tasks. Evaluation of the program was made in terms of behavioral changes in both tutors and tutees. References are included. (DH)

One of the big problems in migrant education is the need to determine quickly the educational level of the student so that his learning progress can continue as he moves from one school to another. Normative-referenced tests provide little help for the teacher. The author describes a new type of test (the criterion-referenced test), soon to be marketed commercially, which could aid the teacher in minimizing lost teaching time by easily identifying the appropriate instructional level in reading and mathematics for each student. (Author/LS)

The use of the cloze procedure to determine instructional reading levels for pupils in grades 4, 5, and 6 was investigated. For each grade, 50 subjects were selected who, on the basis of teacher judgment, were reading at their respective grade levels. The Botel Reading Inventory, Form A (Word Opposites) served as the criterion for instructional level. Compared with the Botel Test scores were scores from three cloze tests for each grade level (below grade level, at grade level, and above grade level) and the scores of the Reading Comprehension subtest of the Metropolitan Achievement Tests. Findings revealed relatively low correlations (.11 to .18) between the Botel and the cloze tests. The Botel and the Metropolitan tests correlated fairly high at grades 4 and 5 (.49, .21), and showed a statistically significant difference at grade 6. No significant relationships were noted between the cloze test instructional levels and the Metropolitan Test scores. It was suggested that different means of assessing comprehension may have accounted for low correlations between the cloze and the Botel tests. Tables and a bibliography are included. (WB)

In the introduction to this volume of a two volume document (See also TE 002 131.) written for curriculum developers, Donald Bateman identifies the recent periods in the development of linguistic thought and methodology, and presents language curriculum development as the continuing exploration of the processes of evolving linguistic structures. Thomas G. Shroyer, in "An Investigation of the Semantics of English Sentences as a Proposed Basis for Language Curriculum Materials," (1) sets forth case relations through an examination of types of sentences, (2) describes a component of a grammar designed to incorporate case relationships into a description of semantic deep structures, (3) illustrates the use of the results of the above developments in the critical reading of poetry, and (4) indicates future areas of study. Barbara Van Horn, in "An Anecdotal Account of a Classroom Investigation of the Semantics of English Sentences," indicates ways in which grammatical principles may be applied to literature, advertising, composition, and sentence structure. (JM)

In the second volume of this two volume document (See TE 002 130.), Thomas Shroyer, in "Aesthetic Theory and Linguistic Investigation," explores the connections between linguistic inquiry and the art theory of Susanne Langer. He attempts to provide the understanding necessary for the teaching of literary art as one product of linguistic composition. Illustrative investigations of five poems for classroom study are included. William Craig, in "Investigation of Syntactic-Semantic Relationships in the Selected Writings of Students in Grades 4-12," examines the writings of students for paratactic relationships, syntactic-semantic relationships, conjunction and restriction, and reification (embedding) and topicalization (internal organization). It is concluded, from a series of standardized tests, that (1) coordination and parataxis decrease as grade level increases, (2) nominalization, extraposition, and passivization increase as grade level increases, and (3) hypotaxis (subordination) remains relatively stable for all grade levels, but older students use nearly all the hypotactic operations in the language while younger students confine themselves to two or three. (JM)

A major activity of any ESEA Title III project is evaluation. This paper suggests evaluation methods especially appropriate to such projects by applying a systems approach to the evaluation design. Evaluation as a system is divided into three subsystems: (1) baseline evaluation, which describes conditions as they exist before project treatment; (2) process evaluation, which provides information to aid decisionmaking in day-to-day operational activities; and (3) product evaluation, which measures the extent to which a set of project objectives has been met. These three evaluation methods provide information to facilitate decisionmaking during the course of the project, instead of postponing evaluation until after completion of the project. This type of continuous evaluation system should be an important part of any innovation program. (Figure 4 on page 30 may reproduce poorly because of marginal legibility.) (RA)

Variations between standard and nonstandard dialects are described as they relate to teaching reading. Children, when they enter school, have developed patterns of oral language which affect their abilities to learn to read in proportion to the degree to which their language patterns vary from standard English. Studies have shown that while disadvantaged children have more poorly developed language skills than their middle-class counterparts, they can be given instruction which will raise these skills. Speech should be encouraged without correction of dialectal differences as mistakes by providing stimulating experiences such as field trips, book sharing, films, pictures, etc. Teaching methods such as those used in English as a second language programs may be used profitably in direct language skills instruction. (MS)

The actual workings of the Educational and Career Exploration System (ECES) are described. The functions of the system are divided into three general phases: (1) an occupational information bank for exploring occupations; (2) an educational information bank for exploring training programs and educational areas of study; and (3) a junior college/senior college information bank for isolating the names of appropriate post-high school institutions. The multiple steps for the student, in his interaction with the computer, are spelled out. The flexibility of the system is stressed as being dependent on the student's immediate needs and his judged level of vocational maturity. The system was field tested in Montclair High School in New Jersey. On the basis of the findings, revisions were made which will be tested in the Genesee Intermediate School District in Flint, Michigan. The paper concludes with a brief assessment of the advantages which ECES can provide to the student, the counselor and the school. [Not available in hard copy due to marginal legibility of original document.] (TL)

The measurement of a pupil's comprehension development from literal comprehension to evaluation focused on two questions: (1) How do we measure the various types of comprehension? and (2) How should we measure the various types of comprehension? Literal comprehension is presently measured by the recall or memory-type question. However, one should assess the reading matter, know the content and background of the discussant, and form interrelationships accordingly. The next level of comprehension, reorganization, has been overlooked but should be measured using the silent strategies of sequence, synopsis, or summary tasks. Inferential comprehension is measured by making predictions and trying to verify them. However, greater emphasis should be placed on a directed-reading-thinking activity in which predictions and verifications lead to further thinking. The highest level of comprehension, evaluation, is primarily measured by asking the student for a judgment without a logical justification for it. This latter point should be stressed. References are included. (CL)

Reading lessons were observed, taped, and analyzed to determine how teachers' questioning strategies contribute to students' ability to comprehend materials read. The kinds of thinking elicited by teachers' questions were investigated by means of a classification scheme developed which included recognition, recall, translation, conjecture, explanation, and evaluation. The characteristic patterns of teachers' questioning behaviors used to control students' responses were categorized into Immediate Right Answer, No Answer Permitted, No Answer Received, and Extending Answers. Question clusters used by teachers to relate the thinking of two or more questions were classified into Setting Purpose-Followup, Verification, Judgmental, and Justification. An analysis of 1,857 questions of 12 randomly selected second- , fourth-, and sixth-grade teachers showed that the teachers tended to emphasize questions which required recall thinking. While they used several controlling actions to cue, clarify, extend, or shut off the students' thinking, they tended to use the Immediate Right Answer pattern. Teachers failed to put questions into clusters which would extend students' thinking and comprehension of the material read. (NS)

English teachers have a responsibility to interpret for students the current linguistic insights into language and to lead them in an open-minded inquiry involving (1) careful observation of language data, (2) translation of this observation into rule-like descriptions, and (3) verification of the rules to determine if revisions must be made. In deciding whether or not to teach transformational grammar, teachers should examine the key concepts advanced by the transformationalists, rather than depend upon the results of possibly inconclusive educational research. These grammarians explain that in order to understand the semantic meaning of a sentence, one needs to know the "deep structure" (the underlying organization of the sentence) which is different from the "surface structure" (the sounds uttered or the words written). Determining the deep structure from the surface structure involves the basic language skills of reading and listening; translating the deep structure into surface structure involves oral and written composition. (JS)

To teach students how to write in a contemporary style, a secondary-school English teacher must be able to describe adequately the kind of writing he expects. Since many modern writers frequently ignore the guidelines proffered in traditional writing handbooks, the "new rhetoric"--a descriptive approach to composition that substitutes objective, verifiable data for traditional rules--can be of immediate practical value to the teacher in describing contemporary writing models. An analysis of a paragraph from Ray Bradbury's "A Sound of Thunder," based on such quantitative descriptions as frequency counts of words, sentence length, modal varieties and repetitions, and grammatical and rhetorical constructs, indicates that Bradbury almost entirely ignores most traditional advice and achieves his effect through a "cumulative" layering that builds the paragraph sentence-by-sentence in a manner similar to the phrase-by-phrase construction of a sentence. By leading students through such an analysis of contemporary writers and then devising suitable exercises based on the principles discovered in the models, the teacher can clearly and exactly guide his young writers in the process of composition. (LH)

AN EXPERIMENT WAS CONDUCTED, OVER A 2-YEAR PERIOD, AT THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL TO TEST THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF A STUDY OF A GENERATIVE GRAMMAR ON STUDENT COMPOSITIONS. IN ADDITION TO THE REGULAR CURRICULUM, AN EXPERIMENTAL CLASS OF 50 NINTH-GRADERS (AND 10TH-GRADERS THE FOLLOWING YEAR) WAS REQUIRED TO LEARN TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE GRAMMATICAL MATERIALS PREPARED BY THE INVESTIGATORS. SAMPLES OF WRITING BY BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL CLASSES WERE COLLECTED DURING THE FIRST 3 MONTHS OF THE PROJECT, AND IN THE LAST 3 MONTHS OF THE 2-YEAR PERIOD. THESE WERE ANALYZED FOR (1) STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY, (2) THE PROPORTION OF WELL-FORMED TO MALFORMED SENTENCES, AND (3) THE TREND IN THE FREQUENCY AND KINDS OF MISOPERATIONS THAT OCCURRED. RESULTS OF THIS ANALYSIS INDICATE THAT KNOWLEDGE OF GENERATIVE GRAMMAR (1) ENABLES STUDENTS TO INCREASE SIGNIFICANTLY THE PROPORTION OF WELL-FORMED SENTENCES IN THEIR WRITING, (2) SEEMS TO ENABLE STUDENTS TO INCREASE THE COMPLEXITY WITHOUT SACRIFICING THE GRAMMATICALITY OF THEIR SENTENCES, AND (3) CAN ENABLE STUDENTS TO REDUCE THE NUMBER OF ERRORS IN THEIR WRITING. BECAUSE THE LOGIC OF GENERATIVE GRAMMAR SEEMS TO REPRESENT THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS OF SENTENCE FORMATION, ITS STUDY HELPS THE STUDENT OVERCOME THE DIFFICULTIES OF WRITING WITH GRAMMATICAL EFFECTIVENESS. (THIS REPORT--A CONDENSATION OF THE FINAL REPORT FOR COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROJECT NO. 1746 (SEE ED 001 241.)--IS ALSO AVAILABLE FOR $1.00 FROM THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, 508 SOUTH SIXTH STREET, CHAMPAIGN, ILLINOIS 61820, ORDER NO. 14709.) (DL)

A token reinforcement program was used by the Piney Woods Research and Demonstration Center in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Children who were from economically deprived homes received tokens for positive behavior. The tokens were redeemable for recess privileges, ice cream, candy, and other such reinforcers. All tokens were spent on the day earned so that there would be no saving up for a rainy day. The results showed that minor as well as extreme negative behavior was modified. For example, one boy would throw his lunch and shoes into a waste basket upon arriving at school. He would also throw temper tantrums. After the teacher continually rewarded the children around him for their positive behavior, the boy joined class activities more readily and had fewer outbursts of temper. To measure more effectively the results of the program, a pretest and posttest research design has been developed and is being tested with more traditional first grades. (JS)