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Compared were children's reflective behavior in the classroom to their reflective behavior in individual environments. Examined were three environmental variables in terms of the way each affected reflective behavior in children. The variables are (1) report card grades vs. no grades for performance, (2) individual vs. classroom environment, and (3) dialogue with an adult vs. written test conditions. Results of testing showed that even though children differed in reflectivity within a testing condition, children taking written tests were in general more reflective than children tested under dialogue conditions. It was concluded that it would be unwise for educators or researchers to directly compare problem-solving scores obtained in different test environments. Also, teacher-student dialogue appears to be a particularly difficult environment for children working on complex problems. This rapid communications system apparently serves to discourage children from processing information sufficiently and therefore from solving complex problems. (BL)

This guidebook covers Boolean algebra, matrices, linear transformations of the plane, characteristic values, vectors, and algebraic structures. Overall course goals and performance objectives for each unit are specified; sequencing of units and various time schedules are suggested. A sample pretest and posttest are given, and an annotated list of 14 references is included. (DT)

The effects of the combined use of a nonsimulation game and student teams in mathematics on student achievement were investigated. Ninety-six seventh grade students in two low- and two average-ability mathematics classes participated in the study. One low- and one average-ability class played the nonsimulation game Equations twice a week for nine weeks in addition to receiving traditional instruction. The remaining two classes received traditional instruction only. In the games classes, the Equations tournament was based upon team competition using four-member teams. Students were pretested and posttested with the computations subtest of the Stanford Achievement Test in mathematics and a divergent solutions test designed by the experimenters. Analysis showed that the experimental classes had significantly greater gains on both the computations subtest and the divergent solutions test. The low-ability experimental class obtained a posttest score on the divergent solution test that was almost double their pretest, while the low ability control class showed no gain. Learning rates were more similar in the two experimental classes than in the two control classes. (Author/DT)

During 1971, the third year of operation of Contra Costa College's (California) mobile counseling unit, the priorities established for that program were (a) to make the mobile counseling unit and program as widely known in the community as possible, and (b) to concentrate on the services to the client. The counseling unit and program were publicized to the community through the (1) establishment of relationship with local, federal and state agencies, (2) involvement of the counselor in various community group activities, (3) recruitment by existing clientele, (4) dissemination of information to local businesses, and (5) use of mass media. Services to clients were improved by considering obstacles to admission by the college from the recruit's point of view. The college's requirements such as transcripts, permanent residence in the district, and a placement test were modified or made less anxiety-producing for the recruits through the efforts of the counselor. This report also includes the results of a 2-year study of recruits and several recommendations for better relations with those students. It was suggested that an appropriate model for evaluating student persistence be used and the counseling approach be changed from corrective to appreciative. Specific suggestions included: (1) provision of a means whereby recruits can enter the college at anytime during the semester; (2) operation of the unit during the summer; (3) recognition of the need for specialized faculty in the program; and (4) provision for meaningful student reward systems. For reports of the first and second year operations, see ED 031 243 and ED 043 332. (AL)

Teachers trained in the art of teaching have recognized for many years that the student is an object of instruction. It has only been recently recognized, however, that the student can effectively teach his peers. By doing the teaching, students learn the material better and retain the subject matter longer than they ordinarily would. In addition, students approach the subject matter with enthusiasm and they continue to do so after the course. Fred Keller has developed an instructional technique known as the personalized system of instruction (PSI) in which the use of students as teachers has been maximized. The proctor is not only an important source for disseminating information to other students as a "teacher," but is an important source of feedback on the good and bad characteristics of the program. Proctors have been enthusiastic in their support of the system and harsh in their criticism. (Author)

A study was conducted to learn whether or not occupational perceptions become more specific or differentiated with age. The study was based on the hypothesis that older people should be able to discriminate more accurately among occupations than younger people as a result of their experience and development. The literature was searched for samples of elementary students, high school students, college students, and employed adults who had taken the Vocational Preference Inventory. Samples were selected to represent each of these levels. The findings supported the hypothesis in providing evidence that perceptions of occupations tend to become more differentiated, and thus more useful, as people get older. (WS)

The testing procedures used in an introductory psychology class at Utah State University are described. Students who had either taken the course earlier or were concurrently enrolled in the class served as testing managers. Rooms were capable of supporting up to 250 students during class time for written exams. "Permits" to take a test have required the signatures of interviewing managers for admission into the testing room and permission to take a particular test. A testing manager's signature was then required for permission to continue through the next set of oral interviews with the interviewing manager. Written exams required a minimum of 90% mastery to pass and oral interviews required a minimum of 100% mastery. Failed exams could be taken at a later time without penalty. A general trend toward maximum testing was shown until the fourth testing week. Following this peak, the trend reverses to form an inverted "U" shape. This effect conflicts with the expectation that a positively accelerated rate of test-taking would occur in a self-paced system of instruction. Current studies are investigating this effect. (Author/LH)

Several simulations of population, income, and employment in rural and urban America during 1970-2000 were made based on alternative assumptions. The assumptions entailed implementation of certain policies that might effect a more equal rural-urban balance by the year 2000, in addition to a continuation of current trends. If basic trends continue, rural outmigration would probably stop or reverse itself shortly after the year 2000, primarily because the gap between the incomes of rural and urban workers would have gradually closed. But the employment-population ratio in rural areas would still be below that in urban areas; hence, overall rural economic growth would still be lower. Policies to increase job opportunities and labor productivity in rural areas were judged to show more promise as development strategies than were policies to reduce the natural rate of population increase or limit outmigration. For per capita incomes and employment-population ratios in rural and urban America to be equal in the year 2000, about 8.8 million more new jobs than are expected from current trends would be needed in rural areas. Of these, 3.7 million would be transfers of jobs that would have been located in urban areas under present trends; the remaining 5.1 million jobs would have to be created to more fully utilize the underemployed rural labor force. (Author)

This study examines the effects of using a learning game "Equations," student teams, and the game-teams combination on classroom process variables in seventh grade math classes. Using the game created greater student peer tutoring, less perceived difficulty, and greater satisfaction with the class. Using student teams resulted in greater student peer tutoring, and greater perceived mutual concern and competitiveness in the classroom. The games-teams combination resulted in greater peer tutoring than either games or teams alone. The results are interpreted using a structural theory of games and of teams. (Author)

Student performance in a self-paced personalized system of instruction course is varied in rates and patterns of work. Using 118 students in a college level introductory psychology course the investigators found 1) students worked at a variety of rates and patterns; 2) students who started to work early had a much greater chance of finishing the course than those who started later; and 3) that most students who made long pauses did so after taking one of the first four written exams regardless of when in the course they started to work. The implication presented was that a student should be reinforced for starting work early in a self-paced class. (MC)

Although many public schools are nominally desegregated, the interaction among students of varying racial and ethnic backgrounds is minimal. Desegregated schools need to restructure the classroom in order to create more positive and constructive relationships among students from varying backgrounds. The present study investigated the restructuring of seventh grade mathematics classes by means of student teams and instructional games. The study examined how this restructuring affected cross-race and cross-sex selection by students of their helpmates and friends. The subjects were 115 seventh grade students at a large urban junior high school; 43 percent of the students were blacks, and 47 percent were males. A two by two randomized design was used manipulating Task and Reward. Placing students on heterogeneous four-member student teams created significantly greater cross-race and cross-sex helping and friendship. Playing the instructional game had a marginal effect on cross-race helping only; however, the game-team combination increased considerably the incidence of cross-race and cross-sex interaction over that of games alone. (Author/JM)

The Edison Project is an ESEA Title VIII dropout prevention program for 250 tenth grade students who were identified as potential dropouts on the basis of previous attendance, grades, and grade level retention. Some of the problems that affect student attendance have been found to be gangs, money, race, and relevance of education. The project was formed so as to ameliorate these problems. Career development and community awareness were to be integral parts of the curricula that were to be developed. Self-contained classrooms and home contacts were specified as means of personalizing education. Work-stipend positions, which involved 15 hours of work each week, were available and paid from the project budget. Remedial math, remedial reading, health care, and food services were also provided. The instructional and career development goals met with little success. The dropout rate was 21.3 percent while the average daily attendance was 78.1 percent. Other tenth graders in the high school had corresponding rates of 33.1 and 61.8 percent. Pretest-posttest gains were seven months in reading and two months in arithmetic. (Author/JM)

This report is the first of a 2-part study aimed at assessing levels of information about and perceptions of vocational, technical, and adult education (VTAE) in Florida. Analysis of data collected during a statewide survey of 630 Florida residents in late March and early April 1971 revealed that perceptions of VTAE seem to be generally positive, but information about vocational education seems to be low as well as unrelated, in any systematic way, to images of VTAE. It was also found that some groups, namely older citizens and housewives, are reticent in regard to participation in VTAE program. When asked to define the term vocational education, persons of higher social status tended to respond in concrete terms, viewing vocational education as either specific skills, training, or education, while lower status persons tended to say that vocational education was "something good." Groups identified as potential users of public information programs included: (1) low income groups, (2) high school dropouts, (3) service and manual workers, (4) non-whites, (5) housewives, and (6) senior citizens. The type of information needed and method for channeling it to each of the target groups should be determined under controlled testing. The sample design and questionnaire are appended. (SB)

Rather than adding more and more programs for special education and more and more special personnel, the new Texas State Plan for Special Education emphasizes attention to the needs of exceptional children within the normal classroom whenever possible. Part of this program is the inservice training of regular teachers so that they can provide the special help exceptional children need. While computer-assisted instruction might be an excellent mode of instruction for exceptional children, the course reported and evaluated here provided inservice training in special education for regular teachers. (RH)

Problems associated with rural economic development--involving maldistributions of population, income, and employment--suggest the need for statistical indicators of rural area growth and development. Development problems are not usually aligned geographically with the boundaries of a city, county, or state, but multicounty units of observation are considered useful for descriptive, analytical, and policy implication purposes. Therefore, in the study, 489 multicounty trading areas, including all counties in the 48 contiguous states, were aggregated into 5 urban-orientation groups. The level of development of an area was found to be correlated with urban orientation; however, the sparsely settled rural areas of the Great Plains, on average, have attained a slightly higher level of economic development than the more densely settled rural areas of the Southeast. Population and employment growth rates are independent of urban orientation or the level of economic development. Economic development policies need to differ for rural areas compared with urban areas and for areas with a higher level of development compared to those with lower levels of development. (Author/LS)

This paper, a revision of the original document, "Correcting Partial, Multiple, and Canonical Correlations for Attenuation" (see TM 000 535), presents the formula for correcting coefficients of partial correlation for attenuation due to errors of measurement. In addition, the correction for attenuation formulas for multiple and cannonical correlations are discussed. The attenuating effects of measurement error are examined algebraically for a special case of partial correlation and multiple correlation. Finally, the formula for the corrected partial r is related to recent work on the measurement of change. (Author/AG)

This study examines the effect on learning of repeated plays of the simulation game "Trade and Develop" (T/D). It also examines the effects of students' ability, using a general measure (determined by school tracking procedures) and a specific measure (achievement test in the specific class). The results of the study indicate that, after playing the basic version of T/D twice, further playing of the basic game or the advanced game will not increase students' understanding of the mechanics of the game (perceptions), strategies of play, or analogies between the game model and the real situation. The effects of students' general ability on learning in the game were weaker for learning of strategies than for learning of perceptions of the game, or for understanding of the analogies between the game and real life. The learning of perceptions and of strategies was not related to the specific measure of achievement, but the correlation between learning of analogies and the achievement measure was significant. (Author)

This speech discusses security measures that could be implemented in school buildings to reduce vandalism and its associated costs. Some suggested methods for reducing vandalism include (1) employment of security guards, (2) 24-hour deployment of custodial staff, (3) installation of unbreakable doors and tamper-proof locks, and (4) use of an intrusion detection system. Several anti-intrusion systems are described briefly. (JF)

A sample of 358 men and 360 women took the Self-Directed Search (SDS), a vocational guidance tool developed by Holland based on his theory of vocational choice. Holland had found that in the occupational domain the factor loadings on the Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional scales fit a hexagonal paradigm where adjacent types usually had similar loadings and distant types usually had divergent loadings. Data from this sample was subjected to factor and configural analysis in an attempt to verify the relationships among Holland's personality types, to clarify the characteristics of each type, and to extend the hexagonal model to new domains of assessment. The results of the analyses offer strong empirical support for the hexagonal arrangement of the personality types, and also support the organization of the SDS and Holland's occupational classification. (Author/DG)

The development of one instrument from a multi-method battery to assess exploration preferences, a questionnaire of individual preferences, is described. The objectives of the study in which it was employed and the concept of exploration are briefly outlined. Over 1000 questionnaire items relevant to high school students' social desirability were initially developed. Based on an item analysis, 153 items were selected to form the first version of the questionnaire. Extensive validity and reliability studies were conducted and three revisions were made on the basis of further item analyses. The questionnaire was administered to eighth, ninth, and eleventh graders to obtain standardization information. The present and final form consists of two 30-item parallel forms, matched for content and psychometric properties. The items cover a wide range of preferences from social participation to risk taking and change activities, and are grouped into four content categories labeled self, classes, adults, and jobs. Results of different studies confirm the validity and reliability of the instrument. They also indicate that the questionnaire has high discriminating power among individuals in the suburban schools, but less so in urban schools. (LR)

This report investigates student evaluations of a business simulation game as a learning experience in terms of specific claims which have been made for this kind of teaching technique. Ninety-nine junior college students in introductory business courses answered a questionnaire after playing the fame as an ongoing, semester-long activity. The results support the claims that games are self-judging, increase student motivation, and increase students' understanding in areas related to the game, but not the claim that games have special value for low-achieving students. The students considered the fame experience most valuable for learning relationships and for getting a feel for the real situation. In general, the students' evaluation of the game as a learning experience was positively related to their understanding of the instructor's reasons for using the game. Also, acceptance of the game as self-judging was associated with low tolerance for ambiguity, and reported increases in business understanding were related to the students' course grades and their understanding of the game. (Author/AWW)

The performance of 131 urban sixth-grade students on the Uses Test of creativity was studied in four environments to determine the effects of testing condition variables and to find optimal testing procedures. Testing condition variables included the giving of grades vs. no grades and individual vs. group administration of the task. The four test environments included combinations of the above alternatives, all with the subjects doing independent written work. Both group testing and the giving of grades were associated with higher scores, and the Group-Grades combination was especially favorable. Of the two variables, grading had the stronger influence. Subjects given grades, when compared to those not given grades, had higher scores for total number of uses, unique uses, non-unique uses, and total time spent. Subjects tested in groups generated more non-unique uses and spent more time than those tested individually; differences on the other two measures were not significant. Interactions, where present, favored the Group-Grades testing condition. The Group-Grades condition also appears to have advantages over test environments used in previous studies. However, validation of the Uses Test in the Group-Grades environment has yet to be tried. Under the time-free conditions of the present study, time spent on the Uses Test correlated highly with all three performance scores; creativity scores also were independent of IQ. It is suggested that voluntary concentration time may be a key variable differentiating creative and uncreative students on a measure which is independent of IQ. (Author)

The study was conducted to gain an understanding of pupil-interaction and pupil-movement in an open-area learning environment. The only measures that were available were not sufficiently suitable and it was necessary to construct a new instrument to gain a valid measure of pupil behavior in a classroom setting. As a result, the Interaction-Network instrument was developed. Three elementary schools were used in the study. Two of the schools contained open-area classrooms and these constituted the experimental schools. The third school, which acted as the 'control' situation, employed a more traditional form of classroom instruction. Pupils from Grades 5, 6, and 7 participated. Samples of approximately 20% of the pupils in each grade at all three schools were observed. A descriptive analysis showed that there were major differences in both pupil-interaction and pupil-movement between the experimental schools and the control school. The role of the teacher was more pronounced in the traditional type school while in the open-area schools there was much more pupil-movement and pupil-interaction. Recommendations were made for the use of the instrument in future research. (Author)

This guidebook on minimum content for a study of probability and its applications was designed for the student who has mastered second-year algebra. Covered in this booklet are sample spaces; tree diagrams, permutations, combinations, probability concepts and applications; and game theory. The course goals and performance objectives are specified, and a course outline along with suggested sources and strategies are provided. Sample pretest and posttests and an annotated list of 14 references are included. (DT)

This document compares the financial resources of University of South Carolina (USC) freshmen for the fall 1968, 1970, and 1972. A questionnaire prepared by the American Council on Education was administered to incoming freshmen at USC and 527 other institutions of higher education including 2-year colleges, 4-year colleges and 42 universities. The resulting summary data on entering freshmen included information on the entering freshmen at USC and weighted normative data based on questionnaire results from the 42 participating universities. Results indicated (1) the estimated parental incomes of USC freshmen are nearly identical to the nationa norms. (2) The estimated parental income interval containing the largest percentage of cases for both USC and other university freshmen has remained at $10,000-$14,999 level during all the years studied. (3) Similar to freshmen at the national level, the most important source of financial support for USC freshmen was parental income. (4) Since source of financial support has remained stable, whereas, the corresponding percentage for other university freshmen has increased almost 10% during the same time period. (5) USC freshmen are not as concerned about financing their education as are freshmen at other universities. (6) USC freshmen are only half as likely to receive scholarship as are other university freshmen. (MJM)

A framework for constructing a set of statistical economic and social indicators for rural development is discussed in this paper. Operational definitions are presented for economic development, economic growth, rural, and rural development. The framework for identifying economic and social indicators can be adapted to quantify most existing theories and depends on delineation based on aggregates of counties according to the homogeneity of economic and social problems. The delineation methods are described. Twelve specific variables are aggregated into a single index of economic development by principal component analysis. Nine delineations are compared for specific variables to test for differences in computed properties of each variable and for differences in estimated relationships among variables. Five difficulties that might limit the set of indicators are that they must be problem-oriented, be rooted in development theory, be capable of providing considerable detail, be reported for carefully chosen observational units, and be based on current and reliable data. (PS)

Mini- and midi-computers have been introduced into the computer science program at Sierra College to afford students more direct contact with computers. The college's administration combined with the Science and Business departments to share the expense and utilization of the program. The National Cash Register Century 100 and the Data General Nova computers were acquired; the total hardware costs amounted to about $4600 per month. In addition to performing various administrative tasks, the Mini-Midi program is used in computer science courses to teach students how to work with computers, using logical problem solving methods. Student demand for these courses is high and their success rate in them is encouraging. Thus, the Mini-Midi combination is meeting the computing needs of the diverse programs at the college and is providing students with access to the hardware, all at a reasonable cost. (PB)

Simulations, which can be defined as formalized techniques for studying complex systems by manipulating the variables in a scaled-down model and observing the results, are useful instructional tools. They provide individualized, self-paced, learner-controlled education, offer discovery experiences which are realistic, and promote problem-solving, decision-making, and immediate feedback. They seem to motivate students and provide them with a means of studying complex systems. Limitations of simulation include the tendencies to over-simplify and over-systematize reality and to stereotype complex situations. Simulations will be even more useful if they are systematically developed, with instructional design following these steps: 1) analysis of instructional content, 2) specification of objectives, 3) definition of target audience, 4) identification of suitable simulation topics, 5) analysis of the feasibility of each topic, 6) design of the simulation, and 7) evaluation. This kind of systems approach to design will remove educational simulations from the realm of the haphazard and provide educators with a demonstrably effective instructional tool. (PB)

This study examined the effectiveness of individually planned learning games used by low-income parents to increase the reading achievement of their children. The subjects were 30 second-grade children in Seattle. Some of the findings were: (1) children who had played learning games with their parents achieved scores that were significantly higher than those of the control group in vocabulary, composite reading, and IQ, and (2) highly significant positive correlations were found for post-vocabulary and composite reading with post-IQ scores. It was concluded that learning games as used by low-income parents increased reading achievement, increased IQ performance, were useful learning tools, and provided techniques for involving parents in the learning process. Significant results were not found relating the learning games and reading comprehension; this may indicate either insufficient time for the games or inadequate content. (DI)

Plans are being developed for a complete refocusing of educational curricula for the goal of career education. Goals for career education at present include: extended educational opportunities from cradle to grave: preparation for successful working careers; each course giving emphasis to its contribution to a successful career; hands-on occupational experience; career preparation through exposure to alternative career choices, and acquisition of actual job skills and attitudes; and learning from the total environment. Career awareness, career exploration, and career preparation are the steps of career education, with occupations classified into 15 clusters. Four models of career education have been developed: school-based, employer-based, home-community based, and rural-residential. Career education has become the number one priority of the Office of Education, yet costs will also fall to State and local governments and school districts. The U. S. Office of Education sees a need for career education since "a fundamental purpose of education is to prepare the young to live a productive and rewarding life. Far too many young Americans in our schools are failing in this essential mission." (SC)

The second year (1972-1973) of a three-year evaluation of University Hill Secondary School, three areas of the program were examined: a survey was made of the use of community resources; a study of the adaptability of Grade Eight students to the individualized program; the performance of students on alternative forms of the same standardized test that they took in 1972. The results of these studies reaffirmed the generally positive view of University Hill that emerged from Year One of the evaluation. The use of community resources was found to be extensive and varied. Through the mini-course program, students were exposed to a much wider range of volunteers and community facilities than were students at the comparison schools. Grade Eight students from the three feeder schools were adapting well to University Hill. They were honouring their "contracted time" obligations by attending class, and were devoting a reasonable portion of their unscheduled time to their studies. The results of the testing indicate that the autonomy afforded students at University Hill through the availability of individualized independent programs did not adversely affect student achievement. See ED 076633 for a related document. (MLP)

A study was conducted to determine how effective was the Communications Program in providing special assistance to students who were experiencing serious difficulty with the English language. Forty-eight students were used in the experimental group at Britannia Secondary School and a further twenty-six students from Templeton Secondary School formed the control group. Most of the students participating were originally from Hong Kong. Pre- and post-tests were given in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The staff and students involved also gave their opinions of the service being provided by the special program. A statistical "t" test was made on the mean-gain scores in each skill area to ascertain if there were significant differences between the experimental and the control groups. The analysis of covariance was also applied to the mean-gain scores in reading. The results indicated that the Communications Program was having a beneficial effect on the development of positive attitudes towards learning among the students concerned. Sound growth in most of the English language skills was also obtained. A number of recommendations were made relating to the Communications Program and further studies of this nature. (Author)

A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of the English Enrichment Program in providing special assistance to students who were experiencing difficulty with the English language. Twenty-eight students were used in the experimental group and a further twenty-six students not in the program constituted the control group. Most of the students participating in the study were originally from Hong Kong. Pre- and post-tests were given in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The staff and students involved also gave their opinions of the service being provided by the special program. A statistical "t" test was made on the gain scores in each skill area to ascertain if there were significant differences between the experimental and the control groups. The analysis of covariance was also applied to the gains in the mean scores in reading. The findings indicated that the experimental group made greater gains in the mean score than the control group in listening and reading skills, but that the differences were not statistically significant. In both Oral and Written English, however, the experimental group did achieve statistically significant greater gains than the control group. Recommendations were made relating to further studies of this nature. (Author)