Search

The important thing for us to acknowledge as developmental psychologists is that our theories and our intuitions about how young children learn were virtually all full-blown before television became a major component of early childhood experience. Because children did not learn from “passive” stimuli before (when there were indeed few such stimuli available to him) we have been too sure that theycannot learn this way. Sesame Street has led a lot of us to make concessions about this, but more significant shifts in our thinking may still be in order.

This paper is directed to those concerned with the planning and supervising of training and certification of early childhood personnel. It represents one assessment of the present state of training, licensing, and certification, and one set of alternatives that might be considered in the formulation of future plans. The analysis is, at best, sketchy, but is nevertheless designed to suggest desirable directions for future efforts. Throughout the discussion, several major assumptions are made. 1. The certification and training of personnel are inseparable concerns. No useful analysis may be made of one without consideration of the other. 2. All personnel involved with the instructional or custodial care of children from birth to approximately 10 years of age constitute a coherent unit of the human service work force rather than a loose collection of separate units with disparate training and qualification needs. 3. Prior to certification, early childhood personnel should be able to demonstrate those functions which they are expected to perform after certification.

Capability of severe hearing handicapped children to integrate in school life and social life was studied. The subjects' adjustment in classroom was evaluated by their classroom teacher and also by the individual psychological tests.The subjects included 7 severe hearing handicapped pupils, 6 in 3rd or 4th grade of regular class and one in special (Fukushiki) class of elementary school. All of them have been receiving the intensive auditory training program from early childhood in addition to the group play and learning exercices in regular kindergarten or nursery school.The results and consideration were as follows:1) Though their lacks in aural communication were striking, it was recognized that the subjects received rehabilitation programs from early childhood had positively showed a good relation with the playmates in kindergarten or nursely school and also in elementary school. It was recognized that their psychological adjustment in classroom was generally positive and good.2) The subjects who were given personal and intensive auditory training based on the group interaction with normal young children showed conspicuous progress in learning on their general behavior, particulary on language and speech behavior.3) Through the life of kindergarten or nursery school and the life of subsequent 3 or 4 years in elementary, school, the subjects showed agressive and impulsive behavioral features that would be apparently thought as maladjustment behaviors. The authors, however, evaluated these behavioral features as positive ones, because the authors considered their behaviors in connection with their attitudes to exchange their will each other, to participate themselves to a group and also to establish their own selves.4) Though the subjects' hearing loss was severe, their ability of abstraction was increased as much as normal children by experiences of learning, at some times in competition and at other times in cooporation with normal children by the performance of living language.

The history of counselling in the USA is presented in terms of four developmental stages: infancy, early childhood, late childhood, and adolescence. It is suggested that client-centred counselling may be an inadequate model as counselling moves into adulthood. The emphasis on relationship is necessary but not sufficient. A more active approach is needed in which the counsellor is prepared to use a wider variety of techniques, to take actions about clients' problems rather than just talk about them, and to devote more attention to a training and support role in relation to a wide variety of community agencies.

A ten-year longitudinal study provides strong evidence that aggression is a learned behavior. Especially important in the acquisition of aggressive habits are the models of behavior to which the developing child is exposed. Boys and girls respond differentially because of different learning conditions.

By the time children enter first grade, significant differences in verbal and mathematical competence exist among them.' These differences reflect variations in (1) inherent ability, and (2) the amounts of human capital acquired before the children reach the age of six.2 The stocks of acquired human capital reflect, in turn, varying inputs of time and other resources by parents, teachers, siblings, and the child. The process of acquiring preschool human capital is analogous to the acquisition of human capital through schooling or on-the-job training. Assuming a constant rental rate for human capital, earnings can be interpreted as a measure of capital stocks at later ages. The IQalso can be interpreted as such a measure of human capital stocks. It is related to some commonly used inputs of human capital, for it is well known that measured IQis not independent of years of schooling acquired before the age of testing. At preschool ages IQmeasures should be related to human capital inputs in early childhood as well as to inherent genetic ability. Viewing measured ability as an index of the stock of human capital puts a different light on earnings functions which include ability and schooling. If contemporaneous ability and schooling measures are used to predict earnings (as in Hansen, Weisbrod, and Scanlon 1970), it is not surprising to find that earnings are more closely related to an ability measure, which

Vocational aspirations were investigated in a sample of 282 children between the ages of 3 and 6. Age comparisons suggested that one aspect of vocational development in early childhood involves mastery of the task of projecting oneself into the future and conceiving of oneself as one day achieving adult status. Race comparisons indicated that urban blacks were less mature than urban whites in terms of mastery of the vocational projective task seen as characteristic of this developmental period. No significant sex differences were found in rate of development. However, there were indications that the pattern of vocational projection differs for males and females and that females undergo occupational foreclosure earlier than their male peers. Implications for vocational development theories are discussed.

Introduction THIS PAPER is based upon an investigation that was carried out among all the children attending the senior schools in the City of Salisbury during the year September 1970July 1971. Numerous papers on the subject of hay fever have been published in recent years, but we believe that this account is justified because of the clinical and administrative observations which it contains. In this connection reference will be made to some acute reactions which appeared after a very short time interval following the injection of alum precipitated pyridine extracts of grass pollen, and the chances of such reactions occurring in any large scale project of this nature. Many doctors consider hay fever to be a trivial complaint in the great majority of cases, and there is no doubt that its effects on children vary enormously. Their severity varies with the amount of grass pollen in the atmosphere (Munro-Ashman, 1967), and this can be an important factor when trying to assess the effects of treatment. The condition tends to appear in infancy or early childhood, and shows the highest incidence and most severe symptoms in youthful sufferers (Fry, 1963). In a survey carried out among secondary school children in Basingstoke an overall incidence of 4 . 1 ~ was reported with a range varying from 0 .9~-10 .7~(Rober t s , 1967). These findings indicate the desirability of considering its effects on education--especially on those young people taking examinations such as " A " and " O " levels. These are held at a time when the condition is most prevalent, and at an age when symptoms are likely to be more acute. Sudden attacks during examinations can make it almost impossible for the patient to continue concentrating on his work, whilst in many cases oral therapy is not of great value, and can produce side effects which might affect the clarity of thought and mental ability of the candidates (Fraser & Gatherer, 1969). It was for these reasons that the Salisbury scheme was undertaken in 1970 as a pilot project which, in essence, followed the pattern previously described by other workers (Roberts, 1967; Fraser & Gatherer, 1969).

Any sensitive parent or researcher is well aware of the tremendous importance of the first few years of a child's life to his future development and well-being. The parent considers the needs of the child as well as the expectations of society and then attempts to mold and shape this crying, struggling organism into a self-sustaining functional member of society. Each culture in its wisdom promotes those behaviors and values that are easiest to establish biologically. Until recently, the biological guidelines were clearcut. A parent would observe the sex of the newborn infant and proceed to teach the child in accord with the prescribed cultural pattern. However, changes in cultural necessities have alerted the sensitive parent to reexamine the needs of the individual child in light of the latest medical and psychological knowledge.

Educators advocate that a sound nutritonal program for preschool children should focus not only on the kinds of food children eat, but also on the interrelationship of the psychological and sociological aspects that affect children's eating behaviors during mealtime. The lifetime eating habits of people may be influenced primarily from factors acquired during the development of eating habits in early childhood. A study by Eppright, Fox, Fryer, Lamkin, and Vivian (1969) has indicated that by the age of 3 years many children have developed a dislike for certain foods or types of foods, notably vegetables. Teachers in preschool settings and parents may overestimate the amounts of food needed by preschool children and encourage overeating at this early age. Also persons working with young children need to be aware of the possible psychological effects of negative ways of dealing with children when they are reluctant to eat. Eating habits of infants and preschool children were found to be highly individualistic in another study by Eppright, Fox, Fryer, Lamkin, and Vivian (1970). Teachers' awareness that mealtime can be blended into the total

Mother evaluation and child self-regard are closely related. For example, parents of underachievers have stronger negative attitudes toward their children than do parents of achievers. Boys and girls whose parents describe them as capable usually have a positive self-image. Parents who feel opposed, rejected, and incapable tend to produce children who undervalue themselves (Shaw, 1965; Schwartz, 1967). Most school projects have sought to resolve the phenomena of undervalued self and low achievement by removing children from their homes at an ever earlier age and for longer periods of time. Programs of this type seldom make provisions for meaningful parental involvement and imply that low income mothers are incapable of developing positive selfregard in their children. The fact that a youngster seeks to be like his mother through identification and introjection of her personality has been seen as a stubborn obstacle rather than as an educational possibility (Strom 1969, 1974). The aproach we will describe advocates elevating the child's self-impression by enhancing his mother's confidence as a teacher rather than by removing him from the home. Given the longstanding belief that maternal self-concept is fixed and the traditional attitude toward the parental role in education, one might suppose the educational task to be insurmountable. However, data support the view that self-concept is continually changing. Granted, qualities of the self are shaped to a large extent in infancy and early childhood, but most individuals retain sufficient flexibility so that the self continues to be shaped throughout life (Hamachek, 1971). If there is a critical relationship among selfconcept, achievement, and mental health, and if children assess their worth largely in terms of the relationship with mother, it would seem imperative that in some families steps be initiated to alter maternal self-impression. This process might begin by studying the dynamics of intrafamily assessment (Greathouse, 1972; Sawicki, 1972; Strom, 1974).

This study compared the perceived parental behavior characteristics of 41 counselors in training and 33 fifth-year engineering students in a test of a part of Roe's vocational choice theory, which suggests dichotomous pattern of vocational choice: “toward persons” (e.g., counseling) or “toward nonpersons” (e.g., engineering) categories that will have been determined by the nature of the early childhood socialization process. In essence, a person who has experienced a warm loving home situation is more likely to enter a “toward persons” occupation and an individual whose parent-child relationship was emotionally cold will most likely gravitate toward a “toward nonpersons” occupation. Both groups were administered the Parent-Child Relations Questionnaire developed by Roe and Siegelman. The findings lend considerable support to Roe's theory.

Summary.-The relationship between age and unlike-sex peer pressure was studied by requiring an individual to contradict an obviously and unanimously wrong decision by a majoriry group of 5, of which he was the sixth member and the only represenrarive of his sex. 100 male and female students between the ages of 5 and 19 yr. acted as Ss. No differences were found between the sexes to unlike-sex pressure but conformity showed a decreasing linear relationship to age. The nature of the relationship between boys and girls varies with age. Peer groups in the early school years usually include both sexes and the child's attitude toward his peers does not depend upon their sex. Beginning at age 7 or 8 yr. children start to associate primarily with their same-sex peers and during middle childhood the segregation of the sexes is greatest. Boys and girls not only confine their social activities to members of the same sex but manifest in addition a marked antagonism toward the other. They reciprocally regard members of the opposite sex as inferior and unattractive. After the onset of puberty sex antagonisms begin to wane. Mixed peer groups become more popular and provide opportunities for interaction between the sexes. By the end of adolescence conventional sex roles have been learned and accepted by members of both sexes. To be attractive girls must learn to be submissive and gentle while boys must be self-assertive and independent (Mussen, et al., 1969). Whilst a number of developmental studies have been carried out to investigate the relationship between conformity and same-sex peer pressures (Berenda, 1950; Collins & Thomas, 1972; Costanzo & Shaw, 1966; Marple, 1933; Patel & Gordon, 1960; Van Krevelen, 1959), the influence of unlike-sex peers has been neglected. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the nature of the relationship between boys and girls at various age levels affected pressure to conform to a majority decision by their unlike-sex peers. METHOD Subjects The critical Ss were 50 male and 50 female school pupils, ranging in age from 5to 19-yr. and attending two state primary and two state high schools in metropolitan Sydney. Twenry Ss, 10 male and 10 female, were assigned to each of five age groups-an early childhood group (5- to 7-yr.), a middle childhood group (7- to 10-yr.), a pre-adolescent group (10- to 13-yr.), an adolescent group (13- to lG-~r.) and a late adolescent group (16- to 19-yr.). Ss were randomly selected from the attendance rolls. The majority peer group consisted of five pupils of unlike sex from the same class as the crirical S. Each majority group attended an average number of 7 experimental sessions with successive critical Ss.

A psychological and pedagogic study was made of a group of children between the ages of 7 and 12 years in whom the only abnormal feature in the case history was neonatal cerebral effects. There were no obvious neurological sequelae, adverse effects from the family environment, or any general retardation. Many different anomalies of function were observed, which caused learning problems in three specific areas: inadequacy of attention, inadequacy of motor control and inadequacy of emotional and thymic control. These were manifested in difficulties in the integration of inner experiences and problems in the development of a stable personality and cognitive and affective structures, despite the normality of the family environment.

I. This paper is devoted to an effort to trace the distinctive features of the relationships between sensory and verbal generalizations among children.

A group of 38 preschool children, aged 63 to 82 mo., were divided into subgroups of short, long and intermediate spiral aftereffect duration. The group with an intermediate score was assumed to have reached a stage of relative autonomy from both extraceptive (nonself) and intraceptive (self) factors of perception. As predicted, this group was neither as dependent on the visual field in the Rod-and-frame Test as the other two groups, nor did it score as extremely independent of that field.

(1957). Meetings of the New York Psychoanalytic Society. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly: Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 295-301.

THE majority of people, about 70 per cent, experience their first infection with the herpes simplex virus in infancy or early childhood. This infection is usually inapparent, and can therefore only be recognized as having occurred by the presence of circulating antibodies.1 However, in about 1 per cent of all infections, the first attack of the virus can give rise to a serious or even fatal disease. These primary infections, of which the commonest is the clinical entity known as acute herpetic gingivostomatitis,2 3 4 5 6 are well recognized in childhood because they commonly occur in this age group. In adult life, however, . . .

The traditional method of education—one teacher in a classroom—is ineffective with children from low-income families. Six sequential studies presented in this article provide the basis for a new role model in early education—the Paraprofessional Educator Manager (PEM). The model uses one professionally trained individual to direct the activities of two teams, each composed of three paraprofessional teachers and one paraprofessional home visitor, who use a structured approach for educating young children that involves both the classroom and home setting. Implications for recruiting and training individuals to implement the model are discussed.

Summary The authors examined about 300 children within 10 days of their third birthday from somatic as well as psychological point of view, and found a tendency that the smaller index ponderalis which the authors employed as a crude indicator of better somatic development, is associated with better social, and functional (intellectual and motor) development.

A FAMILIAL disorder is described in which recurrent attacks of nystagmus, vertigo, and ataxia occur. The clinical picture differs from similar families previously described in that the onset is in early childhood and that the prognosis may be good (Table). Twenty-three of 62 members (five generations) of a family have been found to be affected with a periodic nystagmus, vertigo, and ataxia with onset in early childhood. One individual developed permanent ataxia in later life, but two underwent abatement of all symptoms by 30 years of age. The remainder continue to experience attacks, often of decreased intensity, throughout adult life. The pattern of inheritance appears to be as a single autosomal dominant trait. Report of Cases Patient No. 15 (Figure) is a 31-year-old white man who from early childhood has suffered recurrent attacks of vertigo, nystagmus, and ataxia of varying degrees of severity and duration. On about six of every

Summary Report on three cases of phantoms in congenital absence of limbs and after amputation in early infancy. The phantoms were in every way as vivid and natural in form, intensity and apparent mobility as those known after amputation in later life. There does not exist a fundamental qualitative difference between phantoms in these cases and in adult amputees. However, phantoms appear to be less frequent in infancy. The bearing of these and earlier observations on a theory of phantom limbs and body scheme is discussed.

The author suggests that the present goals of early childhood education programs may be ill-advised. Further investment in such programs should be tempered by two major possibilities: (I) that existing school objectives should be redefined in terms of relevance for extra-school tasks and skill proficiency; and (2) that early childhood may simply be an inefficient period in which to try to teach skills that can be relatively quickly learned in adolescence. The author discusses a variety of research findings in light of these two considerations and advocates further and more intensive study of intellectual development during the late childhood and early adolescent years. The author concludes that current forms of schooling should not be imposed at early ages. Postponing such learning experiences would probably reduce the degree of alienation from schooling which many students experience,while at the same time producing equal or better results in terms of extra-school achievement.

IN 1929 the senior author initiated the "Center for Research in Child Health and Development" as a research activity of the newly organized Division of Child Hygiene at the Harvard School of Public Health. Subsequently, this Division became the Department of Maternal and Child Health. This "Center" was organized to provide staff and facilities for the periodic and broadly oriented follow-up of individual children from birth throughout childhood and of their mothers during pregnancy. The term "Center" was then used because the project was conducted in a building outside the School with the co-operation of the Children's Hospital, the Boston Lying-in Hospital, the Forsyth Dental Infirmary for Children and members of their respective staffs. Early in 1930 the first prospective mother was enrolled at the Boston Lying-in Hospital for study of her family and the course and outcome of pregnancy. The program carried out at the hospital was designed to provide background for the subsequent enrollment of her infant at birth for continuing periodic studies during early childhood. The initial plans were gradually extended in respect to breadth of studies and the length of periodic follow-up was extended throughout adolescence and included a terminal, more comprehensive eighteenth-year examination. In 1939 the last mother was enrolled during pregnancy and in 1956 the last child still being followed was discharged because of having completed the terminal examination. One hundred and thirty-four children, 67 boys and 67 girls, were followed to 18 years. These constitute the Maturity Series upon which the present group of reports is based. The nature of the studies originally carried out under this project and the progress made between 1930 and 1938 were described in a Monograph published by the Society for Research in Child Development, hereinafter referred to as Monograph I. This dealt in considerable detail with the children enrolled and their families, with the methods of selection and follow-up, with the composition and operations of the multidisciplinary staff and with the methodologies and techniques then employed in the collection and recording of data.

IN THE extensive literature concerning the personality characteristics of schizophrenics, major emphasis has been placed on the role premorbid asocial adjustment plays in the development of schizophrenia.l-I1 KRAEPELIN was one of the first to discuss the early childhood personality characteristics of dementia praecox patients. He emphasized a pattern, most frequently reported in men, who as children ‘exhibited a quiet, shy retiring disposition, made no friends, lived only for themselves’.’ HocH~J~ labeled such patients as having a ‘shut-in’ personality. BLEULER also described an early disturbance reflecting the child’s lack of interest in the environment.13 The concept that the childhood of the adult schizophrenic was often characterized by inadequate social interaction gained wide acceptance. 11 A variety of labels were used to refer to the shut-in premorbid personalities of schizophrenic patients, such as ‘schizophrenic constitutions’,10 ‘schizoid personalities’,293p6 ‘constitutional schizophrenia’,1 ‘introverted personalities’,14 and ‘process symptoms’.l” The qualitative referents of these terms unanimously reflected Hoch’s description. There was disagreement, however, as to what the shut-in, schizoid personality signified. Some clinicians, among them Kraepelin, Bleuler, and Kretschmer, felt that these early disturbances were the first signs of the disease. MEYER, on the other hand, felt that these early traits did not represent disease onset but were dynamic factors predisposing to schizophrenia.16J7 Although much was written in the early 1900’s regarding the childhood social inadequacies of adult schizophrenics, HOCH only was explicit about their prognostically negative role.12 In view of Hoch’s explicit statement regarding the relationship of premorbid adjustment to outcome, it is surprising that relatively little attention was given to this issue. Rather, the length of time during which the psychosis developed (i.e. insidious vs. acute onset) was considered by clinicians the major factor influencing the course of schizophrenia.18Js

Differential Diagnosis The major differential diagnostic categories that the physician must consider when presented with a child of retarded development with behavioral peculiarities are the following: retardation; chronic brain syndrome of infectious, toxic, traumatic, familial degenerative or neoplastic origin; chronic brain syndrome (retardation) caused by disturbances of carbohydrate, lipid or protein metabolism, many of which are hereditary in nature; chronic brain syndrome associated with convulsive disorder; acute psychologic regressive episodes of childhood; immaturity infantilization; deafness; aphasia; and childhood schizophrenia. To make diagnostic distinctions among this group a carefully taken history, and careful physical and neurologic examination, as well as an . . .

Frequentemente naturalizados, os desenhos infantis constituem complexas relações que dependem de características sociais, históricas, culturais e econômicas de seus criadores. O estudo meticuloso sobre os desenhos criados na infância, e em especial, entre as crianças pequenas, quando compreendidos como artefatos culturais e documentos históricos, pode contribuir para se respeitar e conhecer lógicas de construção de culturas naquilo que caracteriza a infância. Tarefa que pode ser tomada pelas ciências sociais, em especial sociologia e antropologia. Desenhar é compreendido aqui como experiência de vida e um convite a ver e compreender o outro do ponto de vista cultural, histórico e social.

IT MAY be of interest to the reader of the Journal to discuss the management of a patient with primary amenorrhea over a period of seventeen years, during which time major developments in endocrinology have occurred. Miss S. B. (Fig. 1) was first seen in the metabolism clinic at the University of Chicago in April 1936, at the age of 18 years, complaining of failure to menstruate and a lack of normal breast development. She had been under medical care elsewhere for the preceding two years without beneficial results. The therapy consisted of dessicated thyroid and several endocrinal preparations of dubious potency. Her mother stated that her birth and early childhood were entirely uneventful. Scant pubic hair was noted at 11 years of age and a few axillary hairs a year later. However, growth of hair in these regions did not progress normally. Physical examination revealed a rather stocky young woman, 167 cm. tall, weighing 138 pounds and mentally alert. Her general appearance was that of a prepubertal child...

twelve million claimants of non-English mother tongues among the children and grandchildren of immigrants to the United States (4). Thus, all in all, roughly 11% of the American population had a non-English mother tongue in 1960. To the extent that their childhood facility has not been lost through disuse and unlearning they represent a huge potential resource for the foreign language skills required for American cultural, commercial, political and diplomatic progress. The numerous schools, organizations, publications, parishes, and radio programs maintained by Americans with non-English mother tongues (3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 17) testify amply to the fact that both facility and interest in these languages continue substantially beyond the point of early childhood. Indeed, Americans with non-English mother tongues represent one of the "two worlds of foreign languages" in the United States. The other world of foreign languages in the United States consists of the teachers and stu