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Is it fanciful to suggest that this twilight state, with its “two party, no choice system” may yet be susceptible to meaningful political change, borrowing as it does from the energy of agitation barely beneath the surface and from the pull of popular expectations? The millions who believe and insist that this country can become what it has always promised may be the heretofore missing catalytic agent.

In the last two decades, Spain has experienced a remarkable increase in its immigrant population (Cornelius,2004), of which North Africans make up a significant percentage. Concurrent and concomitant to this increase, since the end of the Franco regime, a strong tendency for conversion to the Islamic religion has been observable in Andalusian cities like Granada and Cordoba. In the face of these two phenomena, anti-Islamic and anti-“Moorish” attitudes reflecting the combination of ethnical, religious, and nationalist dimensions of discriminationnow prevail amongst large segments of the Spanish public. These attitudes are deeply-rooted and can be interpretedin one sense as historically transmitted stigmatizations of “the other”.

When I was asked to participate in this forum, I thought it was clear what I was getting myself into. As [then] Acting Director of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World (IWSAW) and a media scholar, I thought this was going to be a presentation on media and gender, the intersection of two fields I am quite familiar with from an academic perspective. Easy, I thought. However, when I talked a few weeks ago with Ms. Nakash concerning the details of the presentation, she explained that she expected something personal. I wasn't so sure anymore. Not because I can't be personal, but because I have never done that in public, especially in relation to politics. This is indeed one situation, I thought, where I was not sure I wanted the personal to be political, no offence to sister feminists intended.

The use of parliamentary quotas to increase women’s political participation has gained a lot of traction in women’s empowerment discourse. Women’s movements worldwide have been working hard to make progress in ensuring a more equal representation of women in parties and parliament alike. So far during this decade, Morocco has emerged as one of the leading models for increasing women’s rights in the Arab world. In 2002, an informal agreement among political parties to establish a gender quota for women in parliament quickly gave Morocco one of the highest levels of women’s representation in the Arab region. Just two years later, women’s groups celebrated one of their greatest victories with the reform of the family code, moudawana, in 2004. Both of these events coincided with an increase in the number of women in positions of power.

The present study was an attempt to determine the factors affecting the livelihood of the socioeconomic improvement of migrants and to analyze the causes of rural-urban migration in slum areas. Slum areas have no available formal education facilities and slum people were found to be engaged in rickshaw pulling, day labourer, petty business, small job services etc. Analysis showed that migration and taking in micro credit were beneficial for the slum dwellers. Receiving and utilizing micro credit income level, consumption, expenditure and socio-economic status of the slum dwellers improved to some extent. Due to participation of slum dwellers in NGOs, their economic, social and decision making improved substantially. Credit disbursement through NGOs with integrated approach could bring positive changes in the life of poor slum women as well as their community. Findings showed that Fifty six per cent people migrated to Dhaka city for economic reason. Factors of migration had a significant contribution of rural urban migration and also significant livelihood improvement has taken place due to micro credit. At the individual level, the women were benefited in terms of mobility and skill, self confidence, widening of interests, access to financial services, build own savings, competence in public affairs and status at home and in the community that lead a better awareness for enhancing women's empowerment. However, there is a need for proper training for sustainable result in the long run. Keywords: Migration; Livelihood; Micro credit DOI: 10.3329/jbau.v7i2.4750 J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ. 7(2): 373-380, 2009

The PDF of this file is 4,236 kbytes in size and therefore will take a long time to download if you click on the PDF link below. If you would like the file to be sent to you by email, please send a request to info@nepjol.info. Please include the citation below in your request. DOI: 10.3126/opsa.v7i0.1115Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology Vol.7 2001 p.147-173

The PDF of this file is 1,352 kbytes in size and therefore will take a long time to download if you click on the PDF link below. If you would like the file to be sent to you by email, please send a request to info@nepjol.info. Please include the citation below in your request. DOI: 10.3126/opsa.v6i0.1099Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology Vol.6 2000 p.15-25

First, I'd like to take this opportunity to thank you for inviting me to speak to you tonight on this happy occasion. Second, I'd like to salute you for choosing for yourforum such an important topic, The Role of Higher Education in the Empowerment and Achievements of Arab Women. Third, I am grateful to all the participantsin this conference whose contributions, I am sure, will add significantly to improving the life of women in theArab world, and fourth, I'd like to extend my most sincere gratitude to the organizers for working so hard to make this event most productive and most enjoyable.

No development objectives can be achieved without making women self reliant. The present study deals with the role of Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Service (RDRS) on poverty alleviation and women empowerment in Kaligonj upazila under Lalminirhat district considering their participation in different programmes of RDRS. The impact of the study was assessed in terms of economic and social gains accrued by the women's and their families' activities. The random sampling technique was used for selection of sample size. The test of mean difference, head count ratio, poverty gap, economic status index, social status index and decision-making index were used towards poverty alleviation and for women empowerment. The poverty situations improved as compared with that of the national level. It was clearly evident that participation in RDRS micro credit programmes, has substantially improved the respondent's economic condition, social condition and living standards. It referred the positive change in women empowerment in the study areas. By and large the women are better at present in respect of social awareness, freedom of attitude, financial freedom and exercising the right in decision making activities compared to their previous situation. It may , therefore, be inferred that the holistic approach followed by the RDRS for socioeconomic development led to increased family income, socioeconomic and decision making status in general and those of the women in particular in the study area. Keywords: Rural Women; Women empowerment; Poverty alleviation; RDRS DOI: 10.3329/jbau.v6i2.4842 J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ. 6(2): 415-421, 2008

In the abstract the writer of this article intends to present a brief observation on and analysis of prevailing legal education and relevance of its contributions for developing Nepalese legal system and other sectors. It is worth noting that qualitative legal education received by the people in the country plays crucial role for the promotion of legal system and development of society. Legal Education can play significant role in establishing just and equitable society. Inflexibility of thought and lack of legal research hinder the process of strengthening legal development and development of society. Key Words: Legal education; Promotion of legal system; Nepal Tribhuvan University Journal Vol. XXV, No. 1, 2005 Page: 11-26 Uploaded date: 24, September, 2010

The study assessed the technologies available for empowering women in cassava production in Abia State. The objectives were to determine the availability and utilization of technologies for empowering women in cassava production. Questionnaire was the instrument for data collection which was developed on a 4-point measuring scale and was validated by peer review of researchers in agricultural extension. Reliability was established by the Cronbach’s alpha which gave co-efficient of r ∝ = 0.74 indicating a high reliability. Multi-stage random sampling technique was used to select a sample size of 240 and the extension filed officers were used as research assistants to facilitate the administration and retrieval of the questionnaire. Data analysis was achieved with the use of descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean which referenced x = 2.50 as the benchmark and inferential statistics as t-test at 0.050 level of significance. The findings revealed that majority (x = 2.56) agreed that technologies were available for empowering women in cassava production while (x = 2.03) indicated that the extent women were empowered utilizing technologies for cassava production was low. The t- test of no mean significant difference was not rejected because t = 0.01 at P ≥ 0.05 which indicated no mean difference between availability and utilization of technologies for empowering women cassava producers. On the basis of the findings the study recommended that more extension field personnel should be employed and retrained on how to train women on how to use the technologies.Keywords: women, empowerment, cassava, production

Family planning is an essential tool for reducing fertility rate. An increase in contraceptive prevalence rate results in reduction of population growth, which in turn contributes significantly to the improvement of people's health. It is a cross-sectional, descriptive type, observational study done during April-July 2007 in a large Medical Centre. Reproductive history was used as research instrument for data collection. The present study aimed at exploring Contraceptive prevalence and related issue among service holder and regulation of fertility among them. Two thirty one (231) women (childbearing age ) were selected randomly to find out their contraceptive prevalence. Eighty four (n=197) percent women need family planning service.Among them 87.82 percent (N-173) of the respondents use any method of contraception. 79.76 %( N-138) women use modern method and 20.23 percent( N-35) women use natural method .Thirty three (33.53 %) percent couple practice barrier method, twenty two(22.54%) percent use oral pill, female sterilization is 9.25 percent, injectable (DMPA) 5.78 percent, 7.97 percent mixed method .There is progressive decline in oral pill use from 55% to 26%. Fertility rate, menstruation regulation is lower among servicing women. Education, empowerment and social position of women help to reduce fertility. DOI: 10.3329/bmj.v37i1.3601 Bangladesh Medical Journal 37(1) 2008 10-14

Any reader of my first published research on the political participation of Lebanese women can easily detect my vehement opposition to the principle of gender quota and its implementation in Lebanon. As a newcomer to research on women’s political empowerment, I lacked in-depth knowledge of the intricacies of the obstacles that faced, and continue to face, Lebanese women who have political aspirations.

In 2004, Siauliai University Social Research Centre carried out research commissioned by the Ministry of Social Security and Labour and aimed at developing a service model for rehabilitation and re-integration of the victims of trafficking in women and prostitution with regard to the peculiarities of the existing rehabilitation and re-integration service system. The new model should foresee the content and the direction of services offered to the victims as well as preconditions for creating the network of systemic services. The following problem questions have been posed: what are the achievements/strengths or weaknesses/ shortcomings of projects dealing with rehabilitation and re-integration of the victims of trafficking in women and prostitution, already implemented and supported by the Ministry of Social Security and Labor? What factors determine or limit the successful integration of the victims into the system of rehabilitation services? How should such services be developed in the future to achieve their higher efficiency? In what way should the system of services to the victims of trafficking in women and prostitution be expanded to ensure a better functioning of all the links of the system? A qualitative research methodology has been applied for analysis: representatives of 12 organizations providing rehabilitation services for trafficking victims were interviewed; in addition, interviews were carried out with members of police, public administration and other specialists. An extra analysis of the documents of several implemented rehabilitation projects and semi-standardized written survey of project administrators was carried out. Social construction and personal empowerment theories constitute the theoretical background of the research. Some weaknesses of the rehabilitation system for the victims of trafficking in women in Lithuania have been revealed: unfavorable attitudes of the potential members of the rehabilitation system towards the victims, the importance and prospects of their reintegration; collaboration among the project partners, mostly NGOs, is not based on the concept of networking; collaboration among various agencies, especially NGOs, police and municipality, is more of an accidental character; getting victims into re-integration system is problematic due to the insufficient collaboration between service providers, police and international organizations as well as to the insufficient community awareness about the services; etc. Strengths: most often the projects are carried out by NGOs, the specific features of which (no negative stereotypes, the understanding of the person and situation of the victim, constant co-existence, confidentiality, etc.) allow them to provide re-integration services successfully. Threats: the departmental separation of agencies dealing with problems of trafficking in human beings and re-integration of its victims on both the highest (ministries) and lower level (concrete institutions) may cause the fact that the essence and the complexity of the problem is overlooked. Opportunities: with the integration of the European humanistic child rearing and education model within the systems of education and social security of Lithuania, the move from segregated institutional towards community model is likely to appear, which in its turn would decrease the number of potential victimizing environments and victims. The researchers’ recommendations have been channeled in two directions. An empowering rehabilitation and reintegration service model for victims of trafficking in women and prostitution has been designed. The model envisages three levels of integration and rehabilitation services: necessary help, social-psychological and educational-professional services. Accordingly, three definitions of trafficking in women and prostitution victim are provided. Besides, the article construes innovative networking model of rehabilitation services for the victims of trafficking in women and prostitution. The model foresees that service providing organizations apply to the Ministry of Social Security and Labour to participate in the network of rehabilitation and re-integration to provide concrete services or to coordinate the network.

This article reinforces the need of a politics-oriented bioethics as aninstrument to build social justice. It analyzes social inclusion from some conceptssuch as empowerment, liberation and emancipation, as they are the epistemologicaltools of Intervention Bioethics. The text defends the necessity of a concrete politicalaction aiming at social transformation. It presents the content of the Universal DraftDeclaration on Bioethics and Human Rights assembled by UNESCO with the effectiveparticipation of developing countries, discussing the advance attained by the inclusionof social and environmental themes to the bioethics agenda of 21st century. &nbsp, O presente artigo reforça a necessidade de politização da bioética como forma de construção da justiça social. Analisa a inclusão social a partir dos conceitos de empoderamento, libertação e emancipação, como possíveis ferramentas epistemológicas da Bioética de Intervenção. Além das características relacionadas ao rigor acadêmico, o texto defende a necessidade da ação política concreta para a transformação social. Apresenta o teor da Declaração Universal de Bioética e Direitos Humanos construída pela UNESCO com a participação efetiva dos países em desenvolvimento, discutindo o avanço representado pela incorporação dos temas sociais e ambientais à agenda da bioética do século XXI.

Like many Palestinians, 32-year-old Manzur calls Gaza a prison, the biggest in the world. He lives a short distance from Gaza City in Beach Camp, home to 50,000 refugees. True to its name, the camp is by the sea, but even the beach here is blighted by the squalor and overcrowding. Manzur is lucky to have a job, as a hotel security guard, but earns too little to buy a flat or hope to attract a bride. He lives with his parents, four sisters, eight brothers and a grandfather. They share four rooms between them (The Guardian, July 27, 2000).

Micro- finance helps the rural poor to improve their living standards and fulfill their credit needs. Stree Shakti Groups (SSGs) are new innovation in the field of rural economic development, to finance the rural women and also to satisfy their credit needs. This study mainly focuses on the impact of micro-finance on the development of SSG members. The study was undertaken in Doddaballapura taluk of Bangalore rural district of Karnataka state, India and the required data were collected from 100 SSG members and 30 non-SSG members. It was found that the number of income generating activities taken up by SSG members (five) was higher compared to non-SSG members (three) and the income generated from these activities was also higher compared to non-SSG members. There was significant growth in the amount of loan borrowed, repayment and savings over time among SSG members. SSG finance substantially enhanced employment opportunities for members compared to non-members, which led to improved income and living standard of members. Since SSGs play a major role in the development of women, there is a need to encourage more number of SSGs. The study also reveals that the performance of Non Governmental Organization (NGO) promoted SSGs was much better than Government promoted SSGs. Hence, more number of NGOs must be involved in promoting SSGs covering more womenfolk. Keywords: Micro-finance; Stree Shakti group; self help group; impact; empowerment; non-governmental organization DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjar.v36i2.9261 BJAR 2011; 36(2): 333-350

The UN 2030 Agenda was adopted in 2015. The Agenda consists of 17 goals and 169 specific activities and results that would be achieved through its implementation. The Agenda does not address explicitly the issues of culture within sustainable development. In certain goals, its contribution is emphasized in the field of education and economic empowerment through cultural tourism. In the introduction of this document, culture is mentioned in only one paragraph, through the declarative confirmation of the importance of natural and cultural diversity, and their contribution and the key role in sustainable development. The Agenda deals with culture in three goals. Culture is mentioned as a component of education that promotes sustainable development (goal 4), a resource for the development of sustainable tourism (goal 8), and a way for making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, by strengthening efforts to protect and safeguard the world's cultural and natural heritage (goal 11). There are a lot of critics of the weak position of culture in the sustainable development goals and this situation can be seen as a weakness of the Agenda. But a careful analysis of the Agenda has shown that culture is treated as an intersectoral field in the global goals of sustainable development. Operational guidelines for the implementation of the Agenda show that culture and creative entrepreneurship are viewed as a horizontal issue of public policies, which is not limited to specific objectives, but is one of the dimensions of global development processes. This paper deals with the role of culture in achievement of the UN sustainable development goals until 2030. The first part of the paper provides a theoretical framework for exploring interconnections between culture and sustainable development. The second part is dedicated to the review of the UN activities in the field of culture. The last part of the paper is focused on the role of culture in the UN Agenda for sustainable development 2030, with special focus on libraries.

Bazzo, S., Marini, F., & Black, D. (2014). An international campaign to raise awareness of the risks of drinking in pregnancy. The International Journal Of Alcohol And Drug Research, 3(1), 113-116. doi:10.7895/ijadr.v3i1.175Prenatal exposure to alcohol is a major cause of birth defects and developmental disorders around the world. Prevention is a complex issue, with one factor being poor understanding of the risks of drinking during pregnancy. Awareness campaigns have emerged as an effective tool to increase knowledge of the risks in a manner which embraces the whole public and avoids creating stigma. Unfortunately many organizations lack the expertise or resources to develop, carry out, and evaluate such campaigns. The EUFASD Alliance, in collaboration with partners in health education from the Local Health Authority of Treviso, Italy, and a creative partner, Fabrica, propose to develop a campaign which can be adapted to countries and cultures around the world. A key goal is empowerment of individuals and local groups to make choices and change behaviors. A network of partners around the world is being developed to carry out the campaign. Most importantly, the effectiveness of the campaign will be evaluated in several key centers around the world.

The International Labour Organization in Beirut has been running a project in the Palestinian Camps of Nahr El Bared and Ein El Helweh entitled “Palestinian Women Economic Empowerment Initiative”. The project started in 2011 and targets lowincome Palestinian women entrepreneurs through a threefold strategy: giving out loans and grants to women business groups in order to expand their businesses; training women entrepreneurs to enhance their business skills; and building the capacity of support organizations in order to improve business development services for women entrepreneurs and training them to be formally certified to deliver business group formation training. The project builds on the potential of business groups in assuring the protection of Palestinian women entrepreneurs from risks through resilience, pooling of resources, and collective voice. The objectives are to assure a sustainable livelihood for Palestinian women entrepreneurs through supporting them in expanding their businesses beyond survivalist low-income activities

The role of higher education in the empowerment of Arab women was the subject of a round table discussion held at the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World in January 2006. The participants Lara A, Evette G., Yasmine D., Rania G., Dahlia K.S., Maysa H., Zeina M., Josiane M., Myriam S., Marie Jose T. and Rana W. represented several of the major universities in Lebanon. The moderators were Dr. Dima Dabbous- Sensenig and Dr. Jennifer Skulte-Ouaiss. Due to space constraints, the following are excerpts from the twohour discussion.

The human resource management literature has implicitly treated high performance work practices (HPWPs) and human resources management (HRM) effectiveness as substitutes for one another with respect to their relationship with firm performance. We contend that HPWPs and HRM effectiveness act both as substitutes and as complements. Main effects reveal that only human resource management effectiveness affects market performance and that HPWPs affect innovation. However, interacting HPWPs with HRM effectiveness positively relates to both market performance and innovation in support of our hypothesis. The results suggest that effective HRM can offset HPWP's expense and that HPWPs can enhance the flexibility of effective HRM systems. ********** High performance work practices (HPWPs), through significant investment in employees, have been touted as a way to make organizations more flexible and effective. Often HPWPs are viewed as an alternative to traditional productions systems that are firmly rooted in Fredrick Taylor's scientific management and subsequent Fordist principles. However, we contend that having effective human resource structures (HRM effectiveness) can enhance the return on HPWPs because HPWPs require a heavy investment in human capital, that is lost if the firm cannot attract and retain quality employees. Conversely, effective HRM systems can benefit from the innovative capabilities of HPWP that enhance the organization's ability to adapt and change. Hence, we address the question, "Are HPWPs and effective HRM systems complements or substitutes?" We empirically test this question using data from the banking industry. First, we review the literature that supports these predictions. Literature Review and Hypotheses High Performance Work Practices No one has consistently defined, or even uniformly named HPWPs (Baker, 1999; Becket & Gerhart, 1996; Delaney & Goddard, 1997; Wood, 1999). They have been called "high performance work systems," "alternate work practices," and "flexible work practices" (Delaney & Goddard, 2001). Despite the name variances, many of these programs share common elements including rigorous recruitment and selection procedures, incentives based upon performance, and extensive training programs focused on the needs of the business (Becker, Huselid, Pickhus, & Spratt, 1997). Essentially HPWPs require heavy investment in human capital that is intended to enhance employee skills, knowledge, motivation, and flexibility with the expectation that the employer is providing employees the ability and the opportunity to provide input into workplace decisions (Van Buren, & Werner, 1996). Companies expect this empowerment to enable employees to adapt quickly and readily to rapidly changing product and labor market conditions, and to improve operational efficiency and firm performance (Becker & Huselid, 1998; Cappelli & Neumark, 1999). Although high performance work practices (HPWPs) have often been touted as being good for both employers and employees, these practices require significant investments in human capital via training, coordination of initiatives, and time for managerial and employee input. Because of the large investment in human capital, the value of these practices may be lost if the investment is not offset by increased efficiency and effectiveness. Among others, Cappelli and Neumark's (1999) review of the literature (Delaney & Goddard, 2001; Kling, 1995; U.S. Department of Labor, 1993) suggests, on average, that HPWPs are associated with increased productivity. However, Cappelli and Neumark (1999) caution that by examining only productivity effects, researchers ignore the cost side of the equation. Despite this caution, numerous other studies also find a strong relationship between HPWPs and firm performance - studies that do consider both the costs and the benefits of HPWPs (Huselid, 1995; MacDuffie (1995). …

As issues of citizenship and civil society have taken center-stage in recent years – partly as a result of the challenges of globalization, and partly as a result of democratic struggles in various parts of the world – the question of women’s citizenship has assumed prominence. Some feminist scholars stress the longstanding struggle of women for rights and empowerment (Lister, 1997; Narayan, 1997; Yuval-Davis, 1999). Others argue that the autonomous, rights-bearing citizen is a Western construct, and that citizenship and civil society are patriarchal and capitalistic constructs (Pateman, 1988). Nevertheless, rights, citizenship, civil society, and democratization are increasingly in demand in developing countries, including the Arab world. For women, citizenship concerns social standing, political participation, and national membership. Empirically, women’s citizenship is reflected in their legal status, in access to employment and income, in the extent of their participation in formal politics, and in the formation of women’s organizations.

There is a general belief that nowadays men share household works and there is a change from the tradition. The main objective of the paper is to analyse whether husbands shares the household works in rural areas and the study was conducted with 450 respondents in 26 villages in India. The study reports that the findings are not encouraging as projected or anticipated and suggests NGOs NGOs and SHGs should take role in sensitising men to assist in the household works since sharing of household works by men is considered as an indicator of women empowerment. Keywords: Households-sharing; SHGs; NGOs; HDI; GDI DOI: 10.3126/dsaj.v4i0.4521 Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol.4 2010 pp.211-222

It has been ascertained that participatory processes did not involve learning component from both agency and water users’ association for institutional and technical sustainability. The overall process of participation was superficial. There was a need of participation that underscored the empowerment of WUA with accountability. As Vermillion (2005) shares that empowerment with partnership is an emergent institutional paradigm for the irrigation sector development that places water users in the role of irrigation system governance, and government in the roles of regulator and provider of support services. There is a need to re-train the irrigation staff on the emergent institutional paradigm to empower the water users. For the empowerment with accountability, water users are to be provided enough institutional strengthening. There is the need to promote user-agency relationship positively and develop faith and confidence of the users and agency in the regime of transparency. Social scientists point out potential benefits of building successful local organizations. These benefits, for the local people, are in aspects such as empowerment, confidence-building, forming social capital, and reduction of dependency. Given the fact that participation is a process, it cannot be achieved in a short span of time with little institutional inputs. Sustainability of the management transferred irrigation systems/sub-systems definitely hinges on the broad-based and inclusive participatory processes. Keywords: participation; sustainability; management transfer; social capital and empowerment DOI: 10.3126/dsaj.v4i0.4512 Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol.4 2010 pp.41-64

During the last few decades, developing countries in the world has been going through an intensive transformation process related to change in demographic and in the use of human capital. These changes have important implications for women empowerment which they tend to systematically alter the marginal utility of consumption over the life cycle. Considering this view, this cross sectional study was aimed to find out the level of women empowerment in purposively selected areas of Bangladesh. A total 206 married women were interviewed face to face using structured questionnaire. To assess the level of women empowerment, a series of questions were asked with a view to assessing the level of participation in different household and family matters. On the basis of 18 variables, a composite level of women empowerment was assessed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using computer simulation and categorized into three groups. It was found that 40% had poor level of empowerment, 19% had fair and 41 had good level of women empowerment. Bi-variate analysis revealed that level of women empowerment was found to be high among the respondents living in urban areas, less number of children, religion Islam, higher level of education of husband and wife, working status of husband and wife, monthly family income and living in pucca house condition (p0.05). Though the study had some limitations, but the study finding would be helpful for policymakers concerning implementing the programme for empowering women through different intervention programmes. Key words: Women Empowerment, Household Decision Making, Bangladesh DOI: 10.3329/bmj.v37i2.3591 Bangladesh Medical Journal 37(2) 2008 41-45

Education of females is still a topic of interest in many countries, for despite the decrease in illiteracy rates and the rise in education levels in developing countries, there is still much to hope for. I will attempt, in this article, to shed light on female education in three countries of the Middle East region, notably Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Iran.

The study was undertaken to analyze the impact of micro-credit on rural women’s economic empowerment. The study was conducted in Bariyali, Teknogpara and Naga villages of Basan and Kayaltia union under Gazipur Sadar Upazila of Gazipur District. A total number of 90 respondents were selected as sample using stratified random sampling technique. Out of 90 respondents, 45 women were involved with Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) micro-credit program. Other 45 women had no involvement with any other micro-credit programs and they belonged to control group. Both these two groups had same socio-demographic characteristics. Survey method was applied and interview schedule was used to collect relevant data from the respondents. For measuring economic empowerment of rural women, three economic indicators ie., personal income, savings behavior and assets ownership were considered and sample t- test was performed to evaluate the impact of micro-credit on economic empowerment. Results of this study indicated significant differences between BRAC and non BRAC women regarding all these economic indicators of empowerment. In all the cases, BRAC women were more economically empowered than those of non BRAC women. It was also found that BRAC women had more active participation in various income generating activities. The study also revealed that the BRAC women received more micro-credit and utilized this for conducting more income generating activities than control group. They earned more income, saved more money and at the same time owned more assets than non BRAC women. The study stressed the need of more loans to be expanded to low income women folk by different GO and NGOs which would ultimately enhance their economic solvency and empower them economically. This would obviously be helpful for the upliftment of the rural women socio-economically. Keywords: Rural women; micro-credit; impact; empowerment DOI: 10.3329/agric.v8i2.7576 The Agriculturists 8(2): 43-49 (2010)

Despite the call to engage employees in strategy making processes, empirical evidence that ties this engagement to financial performance has not been forthcoming. This study fills this gap by investigating whether involving employees in the strategy making process leads to a higher achievement of strategic goals and subsequently increased financial performance. Our findings suggest that the link between strategy making processes and financial performance may be underestimated unless strategic goals are included as a mediator. We also find environmental dynamism moderates the relationships we investigate. Under conditions of low dynamism, there is a stronger relationship between the engagement of employees and strategic goals related to innovation than under conditions of high dynamism. Conversely, strategic goals related to quality have a stronger relationship with engagement of employees under conditions of high dynamism when compared to conditions of low dynamism. ********** The importance of involving employees throughout an organization in the strategy making process has been recognized by traditional academic researchers (e.g. Burgelman, 1991; Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Hart, 1992), as well as consultants and practitioners (e.g. Hamel & Prahalad, 1994; Kaplan & Norton, 1996). One rationale behind the use of multi-level strategy processes is to provide employees with a better understanding of the company's strategy and build a stronger commitment to achieving the goals in the implementation of the strategy (Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Hamel & Prahalad, 1994; Kaplan & Norton, 1996). A company's strategy can also be facilitated by employee involvement because knowledge and information relevant to strategy making is dispersed throughout the organization (Miller & Monge, 1986). Cognitive model theorists (Anthony, 1978; Frost, Wakely & Ruh, 1974) propose that when employees have more complete knowledge about their jobs and operations they can provide better information. Involvement in strategy making also allows employees to know more about implementation of decisions. For example, ideas that support new innovations often come from those employees that are in direct contact with the customer (Von Hippel, 1988). In order for innovation to be a source of competitive advantage for a company, there must be organizational processes that allow these ideas to be brought forward and integrated into the activities of the company (Burgelman, 1983). Despite the call for more investigations into the relationship between strategy making process and firm performance (Chakravarthy & Doz, 1992; Huff & Reger, 1987), there has been relatively little empirical research on this link, especially when strategy making processes involve multiple levels of the organization (Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Rajagopalan, Rasheed, & Datta, 1993). While the intensity and use of employee involvement practices is on the increase, the strategic impact of such practices has not been adequately investigated. This may be because most studies focus on narrow definitions of employee involvement (Ledford & Lawler, 1994). Our study uses a broad definition of employee involvement in strategy process to include information sharing, decision making, experimentation, understanding of company goals, and iterative strategy making that involves multiple levels of the organization. A broad definition captures the variety of involvement ranging from information sharing to actual decision making. We suggest that aspects of such involvement should relate to achievement of strategic goals. The two types of strategic goals tested in this study are quality and innovation. It is suggested that both require employee involvement and empowerment to make decisions (Lawler, Mohrman, & Ledford, 1995; Burgelman, 1991). In addition, these goals often create a tension between striving to have organizational processes that ensure consistent quality and organizational processes that facilitate creativity and innovation (Brown & Eisenhardt, 1998; Jelinek & Schoonhoven, 1990; Miron, Erez, & Naveh, 2004). …

This paper aims to analyze the association between work burden and backache among women and men. The study design is descriptive cross sectional. Thirty two households are selected. From each of the households sample size of 64 in terms of a pair of either married couple or the unmarried sister and brother are selected. Respondent's age is between 15 to 49 years. Semi structured questionnaire is used to collect data. This study shows significant differences in working hour between male and female. The working hour is significantly higher among the persons with backache. Gender inequality is a stark reality. The gender division of labour may add more work to women resulting into longer working hour for women. This may reflect in some health hazards among women. Hence, more focused attention is needed to understand the non reproductive health problems of women. Keywords: working hour; backache; women empowerment; health problem; health seeking behaviour DOI: 10.3126/dsaj.v4i0.4523 Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol.4 2010 pp.235-246

Psychological theory and research can make key contributions to sustainability scholarship and practice, as is demonstrated here in the field of higher education pedagogy. College students undergo profound changes in epistemological assumptions and in identity during their undergraduate years. Data on the Measure of Intellectual Development for students participating in learner-centred pedagogies at Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington, showed a trend toward more complex thinking by these students (N=153). Qualitative data on student identity development associated with transdisciplinary, project-based campus sustainability courses were collected at Canada’s University of Prince Edward Island and at Western Washington University in Bellingham. Findings revealed the identity of “learner” blending with that of “change agent”; a greater sense of identity in relation to the campus community and the different perspectives of its stakeholders, the sustainability movement; and a sense of empowerment backed up by practical skills. Sustainability poses new challenges for intellectual-moral development and identity development. Psychological theory gives insights into how pedagogies should be designed to challenge students just beyond their level of intellectual, moral, and identity development, in order to expose them to intellectual-moral growth and identity alternatives conducive to the complexities of sustainability advocacy and practice. Les theories psychologiques ainsi que la recherche peuvent apporter d’importantes contributions cles a la recherche et a la pratique de la durabilite, comme cette etude le demontre dans le domaine de la pedagogie dans l’education superieure. Les etudiants collegiaux subissent de profonds changements en terme de refl exion epistemologique et d’identite lors de leurs annees d’etudes au premier cycle. Nous presentons d’abord des donnees se rapportant a la Mesure du Developpement Intellectuel (Measure of Intellectual Development) pour des etudiants de Western Washington University a Bellingham dans l’etat de Washington aux Etats-Unis qui ont participe a des pedagogies centrees sur l’apprenant ; les resultats demontrent une tendance a une pensee plus complexe chez ces etudiants (N=154). Ensuite, nous analysons des donnees qualitatives sur le developpement de l’identite des etudiants de l’Universite de l’Ile- du-Prince-Edouard au Canada et des etudiants de Western Washington University aux Etats-Unis qui ont assiste a des cours sur la durabilite sous forme de projets transdisciplinaires appliques au campus universitaire ; les resultats revelent la superposition de l’identite de « l’apprenant » et de celle d’ «agent de changement », mais aussi un sentiment identitaire plus fort envers la vie de campus et les differentes perspectives de ses partenaires, le mouvement de la durabilite, et enfi n un sentiment de confi ance consolide par un savoir-faire pratique. Les theories psychologiques eclairent la maniere dont les nouvelles pedagogies devraient etre concues afi n de stimuler les etudiants juste au-dela de leur niveau de developpement intellectuel, moral et identitaire, pour les exposer a des alternatives identitaires, et soutenir leur engagement envers des identites d’un genre nouveau en matiere de durabilite.

Sofía Casanova fue cronista del diario ABC durante la Primera Guerra Mundial y la Revolución Bolchevique. En sus crónicas, la periodista describía tanto la actualidad geopolítica de la guerra, como su actividad como mujer burguesa al servicio de la Cruz Roja y la vida cotidiana en Polonia y Rusia. En esas páginas, se pueden encontrar formas de capacitación política de la escritora gallega a través de las relaciones transversales que se crean entre las categorías de género y de nación. En este caso, los vínculos de Sofía Casanova con España, Polonia y Rusia funcionan de manera jerarquizante a la hora de estructurar el acceso al poder político, sorteando en ocasiones los límites establecidos en la norma mayoritaria por su condición sexual.

A inclusão social de pessoas com deficiência é um processo que perpassa tanto pelo empoderamento quanto por transformações da sociedade, de modo a proporcionar oportunidades de participação social plena. Sua efetividade está intimamente atrelada à transformação de paradigmas, estereótipos e preconceitos. Isso é possível por meio da educação formal, da mídia e de fenômenos socioculturais capazes de contribuir para modificar ou reforçar valores morais, como o esporte. O objetivo geral deste ensaio é propor uma reflexão a respeito da maneira como atletas paralímpicos são retratados pela mídia durante os Jogos Paralímpicos e o produto dessa forma de interação com os espectadores. Conclui-se que os atletas querem ser reconhecidos como pessoas produtivas e eficientes assim como qualquer outro cidadão.

Allow me to start with a word of thanks to the Dubai and Northern Emirates Chapter of the Lebanese American University's Alumni Association. Chapter President Adalat Nakash and Vice President Saad El-Zein kindly invited me and gave me the opportunity to be present among you to participate in this conference on the empowerment of Arab women in various fields, such as politics, economics, and socio-cultural activities; and the role of a university in general, and LAU in particular.

The challenges facing women across the world are numerous and require hard and long-term effort. Adding to this burden are the unobserved obstacles latent in the minds of many women resulting from their need to develop contemporary lifestyles and identities. These mental barriers harbored by women repress, and even block, their ability to become self-actualized and achieve empowerment. In other words, a conflict arises within modern women's psyches between the requirements innate in social progress and education on the one hand, and commitment to cultural and traditional values on the other. This study seeks to address the questions: What is the situation of the teaching staff, especially women, in Arab universities? Is there awareness about gender discrimination among faculty members of Arab universities? Moreover, if such discrimination is detected, what are its forms, aspects and degrees? By responding to these questions, the desire for a clearer understanding of women's roles in higher education, and their effects, can be fulfilled.

How can women's studies, and feminist theory and methodologies best serve the Arab world?2 The region is now home to quite a few research centers devoted to gender studies and programs of instruction that were based on the relevance of feminist theory developed in and for the Arab world.3 In addition, many “gender specialists” are now employed by the numerous NGOs in the region. Still, all of these new areas of study or employment face complex challenges, especially if education is to lead to women’s empowerment.

The empowerment of women has been an ongoing process for over six decades, since the establishment of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1946. Shortly afterthat date, the tragic exodus of the Palestinians from their homeland took place, and the impact was tremendously devastating to Jordan and the Arab world at large. In the absence of human security, hope and the opportunity for good education were shattered. All Jordanian girls who had been sent to Palestine for their matriculation level of education had to leave their schools abruptly and returnhome with utter disappointment.

Not necessary. Key words : Women Empowerment; Nepal Tribhuvan University Journal Vol XXI, No. 2, 1998 Page: 165-167 Uploaded date : 29 April, 2011

The question of “Women with Disability” is related to two subjects simultaneously. The first deals with the issue of women’s rights whilst the other deals with the problem of disability and its impact on the identity of the person with a disability. Whereas the literature has lately become quite rich in research and articles about the condition of women and the different aspects of feminist strategies, accomplishments and the empowerment of women, the question of disabled women is still rare and very underdeveloped. As far as the Arab world is concerned, most of its literature deals with disability as a medical and rehabilitation issue given the fact that these writings are being presented by professionals working in the field.

As is now generally recognized both in theory and practice, international law has as good a claim to the name of law as that which springs from the national legal community. But the explanation of the supremacy of law in the international field is subject to the influence of the idea of sovereignty, just as the idea of the state and the binding force of national law have been.

Empirical phenomena show that public accountability and government performance is moderately weak. In that sense, the superlative accomplishment of the state bureaucracy in implementing its task and responsibilities depends not only on the intellectual and managerial capacity, but also on the behavior and organizational culture. This implies that capacity building process has to embrace effort of constructing knowledge and skills as well as good attitude, evenly. In order to strengthen the dimension of work culture in a government institution, State Minister for Apparatus Empowerment (MENPAN) has released many policies, particularly Decree No. 25/KEP/M.PAN/4/2002 concerning Guidance of Extending Work Culture for State Apparatus, from which this paper identifies the current condition and analyses the implementation of work culture principles in the local government institutions in Kalimantan region. Keywords: budaya kerja, aparatur daerah, Kalimantan.

Tourism and poverty’s phenomenon had already been known since the birth of human civilization. In the 1980s poverty became a serious concern of practitioners and scholars in various part of the world, including Indonesia. Poverty is not only understood in understanding as an abstract concept, but also as a reality of economic injustice and inability to meet basic human needs in some rich countries but also in many developing countries in the world. The problem of poverty is a fundamental and tourism is one of the many ways to solve this. The objective of this paper is to study the role of tourism to poverty alleviation including: 1) to analyze the influence of tourism development toward economic performance; 2) to analyze the effect of economic performance on poverty eradication; 3) to analyze the influence of tourism on poverty alleviation; 4) to formulate a strategy to increase tourism's role in poverty alleviation in Badung Regency. This study uses quantitative approach supported by secondary data and qualitative approach using primary data obtained through observation, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Research was conducted in South Badung Regency in the most developed tourism growth and considered the richest district among all regencies in Bali Regencies. Various attempts have been made to alleviate poverty, however have not been able to resolve poverty problems. The grand theory of this study refers to Neoliberalism Theory, supported by Social Democratic Theory and Empowerment Theory. Neoliberalism emphasizes that poverty as an individual problem and prosperity can only be achieved by achievement of economic growth through free market mechanism. According to Social Democratic Theory the emergence of poverty came from outside of the community itself. While the emphasis on the Empowerment Theory is in improving the ability of individual or communities to become indepedence on economic, social welfare and political right. Data analysis using Partial Least Square (PLS) with statistical analysis descriptive and inferential statistics. In order to have a better understanding on the statiscal result, Descriptive Analysis is also used to describe the researched data, using inferential statistical analysis to test the research hypothesis. The results of the research indicated that: 1) the development of tourism showed positive and significant impact on economic performance; 2) economic performance showed negative and significant impact on poverty alleviation; 3) tourism development showed negative and significant effect on poverty alleviation and (4) in order to be able to increase tourism's role in poverty alleviation in Badung Regency the strategy is formulated by analyzing the strengths, weakness, opportunities and challenges based on Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) strategy.

Is the use of participatory techniques effective in empowering and engaging adults with learning difficulties within their "communities"? Despite the progress that has been made to introduce structures for consultation, it is not clear to what extent people are participating. Participation appears to be driven by a Government agenda that is more about achieving consultation forums and less about listening to what is being said or making efforts towards inclusive practice. Who ultimately benefits from empowering practices? This paper discusses the complex ethical considerations of adopting participatory processes with adults with learning difficulties. The potential for individuals to contribute in participatory processes often rests on their ability to communicate verbally within consultative structures and ultimately depends on a degree of interpretation. The challenge for the researcher is to create a meaningful participatory dialogue with research participants whilst facing the difficulties associated with claiming that messages have been clearly understood. This paper draws parallels between the ways in which power relations are analysed in both contemporary learning difficulty discourse and participatory practice and discourse in development work. I also reflect on the use of labelling in the context of learning difficulty and the ways in which labels can be used as a form of control. Participatory techniques can, without significant adjustment and adaptation, result in reinforcing a lack of power. The language of empowerment disguises institutional forms of discrimination that continue to exclude people with learning difficulties from participating as equal citizens.

2006/2007 Il pensiero che ha fatto da guida ed ha sostenuto la scelta del campo di studio - il tema della povertà, delle azioni e degli strumenti di contrasto alla stessa – fa riferimento alla necessità che siano individuate modalità di intervento diverse rispetto a quelle tradizionalmente poste in essere fino ad oggi. La problematica della povertà si intreccia con l’immagine che il povero suscita nel contesto sociale. La rappresentazione che la società ha di un fenomeno e dei soggetti che lo interpretano è fortemente connessa alle scelte di politica sociale che vengono (o non vengono) messe in atto. Nel percorso di studio si è voluto approfondire tali aspetti e pertanto il lavoro di tesi si pone l’interrogativo se interventi di contrasto alla povertà come il reddito minimo di inserimento (RMI) possano realmente innescare processi virtuosi di empowerment e modificare la posizione del soggetto: da assistito a cittadino attivo compartecipe e co-responsabile di un percorso volto alla sua autonomia. Particolare riferimento è stato fatto al Reddito di base per la cittadinanza (RdB) misura realizzata nella Regione Friuli Venezia Giulia a seguito della L.R. 6/2006 e del D.P.Reg. 278/2007. Il motivo della scelta di tale strumento è connesso al fatto che si tratta di una misura a carattere monetario - e pertanto comparabile con le erogazioni assistenziali – integrativa al reddito ma non è una misura di tipo categoriale bensì universale pur essendo selettiva in quanto condizionata alla prova dei mezzi. La prospettiva teorica che ha fatto da guida al percorso di riflessione e che è trasversale ad esso fa riferimento all’orientamento di pensiero di Simmel, in particolare per quanto riguarda il significato del denaro non solo nella sua funzione materiale ma soprattutto simbolica. Tale prospettiva è stata integrata da altri paradigmi: l’interazionismo simbolico e l’approccio fenomenologico di Schütz per quanto riguarda l’immagine dei poveri e le aspettative di comportamento, quindi la relazione Ego-Alter; nonché quella drammaturgica (Goffman 1959/1969; 1961/2003) e del costruttivismo sociale (Berger e Luckmann 1966/1969). Si è ritenuto, inoltre, che l’analisi compiuta da Bourdieu sulla base di un importante e corposo lavoro di ricerca sul tema della miseria (Bourdieu, 1993) potesse fornire supporti utili a sostenere l’argomentazione. Il percorso di tesi si è articolato in due parti: una a carattere empirico e l’altra teorico. Per quanto riguarda la parte empirica ci si è interrogati sulle seguenti dimensioni: a) le rappresentazioni delle persone rispetto: alla loro condizione di povertà; al processo (eventi, esperienze, ecc.) che per loro costituisce la svolta nella povertà; alle risorse soggettive che attivano per contrastare la situazione di disagio; alla percezione di sé come soggetti beneficiari degli interventi economici; b) le rappresentazioni degli assistenti sociali del Servizio Sociale dei Comuni (SSC) sugli aspetti sopra evidenziati e sulle aspettative relative all’introduzione del RdB. Si è ritenuto importante approfondire tali aspetti raccogliendo i vissuti e le opinioni dei diretti interessati: persone che sono in assistenza economica ed assistenti sociali del SSC che eroga la prestazione monetaria. Ciò appare essere utile nella riflessione circa le potenzialità della misura RdB. La scelta metodologica compiuta per il lavoro di ricerca è quella non standard. Sono state effettate delle interviste a osservatori privilegiati finalizzate alla mappatura del contesto (Gianturco 2004; del Zotto 1998) e 15 interviste in profondità, sulla base di un campionatura a scelta ragionata e avvalendosi di una griglia di intervista che è stato utilizzata nella fase rielaborativa. Inoltre, per rilevare la rete relazionale delle persone oltre che attraverso la narrazione delle stesse si è utilizzato lo strumento della rete egoica (Maguire 1983/1989, 26-28). Tale strumento è stato adottato per ciascuna intervista. Oltre a ciò è stato svolto un focus group con un gruppo di assistenti sociali che vi hanno aderito su base volontaria. I temi guida trattati hanno interfacciato gli argomenti affrontati con le persone in sede di intervista. L’analisi dei risultati è stata operata su due dimensioni. La prima dimensione coglie elementi trasversali a tutte le interviste, elementi che fanno riferimento ai contenuti dello schema guida dell’intervista e che vengono qui raggruppati in grandi aree tematiche: il reddito inteso sia come esito di un’attività (presente o passata) che attribuisce alla persona un ruolo sociale sia per la funzione simbolica che esso rappresenta; la rete relazionale in quanto numerosi studi e ricerche rilevano che la povertà percepita è diversa in base allo spessore della rete relazionale e una rete relazionale più o meno densa può influenzare lo stato di povertà; la dimensione della domesticità cioè il rapporto con l’abitazione quale luogo di vita e di espressione di sé e il rapporto con il quartiere; il rapporto con il servizio sociale inteso nella sua dimensione istituzionale, rispetto a questo punto, l’interesse è stato focalizzato a cogliere come le persone percepiscono l’intervento assistenziale, se cioè l’erogazione economica connota la persona che la può percepire come uno stigma o, viceversa, come un aiuto per un cambiamento. Nella seconda dimensione si sono comparate le interviste utilizzando due categorie di pensiero: quella proposta dalla social cognition (Heider 1958/1972; Weiner 1974) in merito ai processi di attribuzione causale messi in atto dalle persone e quella che si riferisce all’orientamento teorico proposto da Merton (1949/2000) riguardo alle modalità di adattamento sociale. Ciò ha consentito di costruire degli ideal-tipo (Weber 1922/1958) denominati: tenaci, smarriti e rassegnati. Ognuno di questi ideal-tipo ha delle caratteristiche specifiche rispetto all’immagine di sé e del proprio futuro. Tale analisi è stata integrata anche con quanto emerso nel focus group. La parte teorica è stata sviluppata sul tema della povertà e dello strumento di contrasto del reddito minimo di inserimento e del reddito di base per la cittadinanza. Il tema della povertà è stato considerato sotto la prospettiva dell’essere e del sentirsi poveri in quanto segnano l’esperienza della persona in modo diverso. Dopo una breve analisi sull’entità del fenomeno in Europa ed in Italia, si è messo in rilievo la questione inerente il concetto di povertà la cui definizione risulta essere complessa perché la povertà assume oggi tanti volti e tante espressioni. Il tema della povertà si intreccia con quelli dell’esclusione sociale, delle disuguaglianze e delle dinamiche di impoverimento. Il permanere in uno stato di povertà non è solo connesso alla precarietà economica ma anche all’indebolirsi delle altre sfere di vita del soggetto: famiglia, rete relazionale, sistema di welfare (Ranci, C. 2002; Giaccardi, Magatti 2005) ed alla trasformazione dei codici culturali in codici che valorizzano il consumo (Bauman 1998/2004). Inoltre, anche le attese del contesto sociale nei confronti del povero (Simmel 1906/2001) influiscono su tale stato. L’attribuzione della responsabilità di essere povero è presente nella storia dell’assistenza ed ha connotato le risposte del sistema sociale nei confronti di queste persone. Essa è spesso accompagnata implicitamente dalla scarsa o assente fiducia nei confronti di queste persone ritenute incapaci di gestire la propria vita e di permanere in un contesto sociale connotato da competitività ed individualismo (Donati, 2000). Al problema di come fronteggiare la povertà si associa anche quello di come evitare la dipendenza dal sistema assistenziale. Il sistema assistenziale stesso sembra, per le logiche che lo sottendono, implementare questo rapporto di dipendenza, rapporto che deresponsabilizza entrambe le parti. Passare da un’ottica riparativa ad una emancipativa comporta vedere la persona come soggetto con abilità, competenze d’agire e capacità di autodeterminazione. Per assumere questo approccio è necessario rifondare il rapporto con la persona in termini di fiducia; ciò da un lato offre la possibilità di rafforzare ed implementare le relazioni ma dall’altro lato impegna la persona nel presentarsi come degno di fiducia (Luhmann 1968/2002). In questo senso i diritti ed i doveri del cittadino nei confronti della comunità vanno ri-considerati anche in relazione al fatto che la base della vita della società è costituita dalle interazioni e dal loro carattere di reciprocità (Simmel 1906/2001). È necessario allora pensare a degli strumenti che possano favorire processi di autonomia. Dopo una breve storia della misura del reddito di cittadinanza, si è messo in evidenza come la stessa abbia assunto denominazioni diverse, denominazioni che presentano aspetti di trasversalità e di specificità. In particolare l’attributo che viene affiancato al termine reddito (di base, di inserimento, di cittadinanza, ecc.) connota la misura ed esprime le finalità della stessa. Si è proposta una lettura della misura secondo un’ottica individualista ed una relazionale, utilizzando come strumento di analisi il modello proposto da Parsons e rielaborato da Donati (1991, 1999, 2006). Si è, inoltre, descritta una sintetica panoramica dell’esperienza europea e si è, quindi, analizzata, nei suoi punti salienti, la sperimentazione avvenuta in Italia alla fine degli anni ’90, nonché l’attuale esperienza realizzata nelle regioni Campania, Basilicata e Friuli Venezia Giulia. Particolare riferimento è stato fatto a quest’ultima esperienza ed anche di tale esperienza si è proposta una lettura secondo il paradigma relazionale. La riflessione si interroga criticamente circa l’effettiva rispondenza degli obiettivi che la misura persegue: innescare processi di empowerment e promuovere la cittadinanza attiva. In relazione a questi aspetti si sono messi in evidenza alcune criticità, contraddizioni e potenzialità dell’intervento.