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PSYCHOANALYTIC and other psychological schools have long held that non-verbal communication (NVC) is of vital importance in human interaction. Tomkins1~2 for example, has built a whole theory of personality around the exigencies of facial affect. As Abercrombie3 has noted: “We speak with our vocal organs, but we converse with our whole body”. While NVC can convey information, as in the American Sign Language for the deaf; and the verbal mode can sustain interpersonal relations, as in informal chat; normally NVC and verbal communications play contrasting roles.4 NVC is used to manage the immediate social situation. Verbal communication is used to convey information connected with shared tasks or problems. 4 It is usually gesture, posture, tone of voice, and facial expressions (NVC) which combine to communicate the emotional base from which words are being exchanged. For ‘example, Argyle et al. 5 have found that non-verbal cues were almost five times more powerful in effecting judgments of inferiority-superiority, than verbal ones. In this context, the old adage “actions speak louder than words” is lent some scientific support. For our study of non-verbal behavior among an inmate population, we received impetus and some direction from the same discipline that has stimulated burgeoning interest in NVC in social science: ethology. Ethology refers to the biological study of animal behavior and is often used, as in ethological, to indicate a focus on NVC. The zoologists who pioneered the field developed systematic techniques for describing and analyzing NVC in their studies of animals, who cannot talk. The productivity of the application of these techniques in human research is attested to by five major works which have been published during the past few years?1°

The influence of central nervous system lesions as well as species difference upon the response to a 0.5 gm./kg. intravenous glucose load has been evaluated in two primate species. The glucose, insulin, free fatty acids (FFA) and growth hormone response of four control M. mulatta did not differ significantly from that of three monkeys sustaining lesions of the amygdaloid nuclei or four animals with cortical lesions. However, glucose levels were lower and FFA levels higher in eight studies in six M. speciosa following cortical lesions compared to six control M. speciosa. The glucose disappearance rate (Kt) was significantly higher in the operated M. speciosa. After intravenous glucose administration, the M. speciosa group had a significantly lower glucose response and a higher insulin response than did the M. mulatta. Free fatty acid levels were lower in control M. speciosa compared to M. mulatta, but higher in operated M. speciosa. Reserpinization or acclimatization to a primate chair did not alter the glucose and insulin response of M. mulatta.

The admitting hemoglobin and hematocrit of 226 male patients in 3 Chicago hospitals was compared to the same values for 128 male graduate students and employees of the same institutions. Know current medical disorders were considered reason for exclusion from the study. The criteria for polycythemia of stress was both hemoglobin in the range of 16–18 g.% and hematocrit in the range of 50–56 per cent. The patient population showed an incidence of 19⋯0 per cent cases copared to 7 per cent for the controls (p The results were felt to confirm the association of chronic emotional stress with moderate elevations of hemoglobin and hematocrit.

Electrical stimulation of the amygdala and hypothalamus was carried out in thirty kittens varying from 4 hours to 50 days of age. Somatomotor responses were consistently elicited from both areas and at all ages studied. Beginning in the second week of life most autonomic responses could be evoked from the hypothalamus before they could be evoked from the amygdala. Initially, affective defense reactions were obtained from hypothalamic locations at 12 days and similar responses from the amygdala by 3 weeks of age. The functional maturation of the hypothalamus for autonomic and behavioral responses precedes the amygdala.

Although the central and stable position of female rhesus monkeys in semi-free-ranging bands has been observed and described, the position of the developing male in the social group is not as well delineated. The present study is an attempt to describe interactions of 18 males with members of their families. Quantitative observations were made on one band (E) of rhesus monkeys on Cayo Santiago. Incidences of behavior recorded were joining, grooming, and threatening. The resulting data were analyzed by comparing the behavior of the males studied toward members of their genealogy as well as unrelated members of the social group. Behavior of family and non-relatives toward the males was also revealed. Statistical analysis revealed that the male subjects engaged in more positive social interactions within the matrifocal family than with other members of the genealogy, and in turn, more such behavior was observed within the genealogy than with unrelated monkeys. Threatening behavior within the genealogies was infrequent. Age effects were noted in that family members directed more interactions toward younger males and as males matured, they groomed more but joined family members less frequently. These data suggest mechanisms of socialization within the genealogy that may be different from those employed within the unrelated social group.

Summary Bilateral ablations of dorsolateral frontal granular cortex were performed in four monkeys prior to the 35th postnatal day and in three monkeys at 3 years of age. Subsequent testing procedures involved the learning of a color discrimination, a series of delayed response tests and a delayed alternation task. No differences were found between early- and late-frontals in learning the color problem. All animals were equally impaired in delayed alternation performance. Delayed response testing revealed a marked superiority for early-frontals, relative to the performances of later-frontals. Differential delayed response performances of the two frontal groups were not due to differences in either surface lesion or retrograde thalamic degeneration. It was concluded that either a compensatory neural reorganization or a progressive cerebral maturation might account for the sparing of delayed response capacity in the early frontal preparations.

IT IS now well established that plasma levels of 17-hydroxycorticosteroid (17-OHCS) may be used as an indicator of emotional arousal. Investigations into the relationship between a variety of psychological states and changes in 17-OHCS levels have largely been concerned with such emotions as anger, anxiety, fear, coping ability, depression and stressful life situations [l]. In general, these studies conclude that these emotional states are accompanied by increase in plasma 17-OHCS levels. In an exhaustive review, Mason [2] concluded that elevations of 17-OHCS are not related to any specific affective state but “reflect a relatively undifferentiated state of emotional arousal or involvement, perhaps in anticipation of activity or coping”. Novelty, and disorganizing emotional reactions have been found to be particularly effective stimuli. In the same review, Mason suggests however, that there have been no studies dealing directly with pleasurable arousal states and 17OHCS levels. As part of a larger study concerned with the effects of sexually arousing visual stimuli in man, we have studied plasma levels 17-OHCS as one of several physiological concomitants of sexual arousal. An initial study on the effects of an erotic movie on sleep and dreams has been published earlier [3]. Subsequently, 3 additional studies using different groups of subjects have been done. In each study, blood samples were drawn for determination of the individuals plasma 17-OHCS response to the erotic films. Since it has also been well established that there is considerable variation between subjects [2] our attempt was not to study groups as such, but individuals, each exhibiting a unique life history, defensive structure, sexual interests and with differing values of what constitutes erotically stimulating material. The major question posed by this investigation is the effect of sexual arousal on the plasma levels of 17-OHCS. Since sexual arousal is an emotional state which probably has a neuro-anatomical substrate distinct from those emotional states of fear, anger and anxiety than we might expect it to also have a different influence on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal cortical response.

The individual and social behavior of 15 cats and 18 rhesus monkeys was recorded and analyzed during a control period of from 3 to 15 months, during which the animals were also trained to solve increasingly complicated problems. Adaptational conflicts were used to induce persistent experimental neuroses in 3 kittens, 2 cats, 3 young monkeys and 8 adult ones. The amygdalae were then totally ablated, with some injury to the surrounding areas, in 6 of the cats and all of the monkeys; in the remaining 9 cats only the lateral or the medial amygdalae were removed. Postoperatively, the cats exhibited: 1. no general amnesia for previous learning; 2. only mild amelioration of neurotic behavior; 3. moderate motor restlessness; 4. variable sexual drive including a phase of hypererotism; 5. markedly altered interactions with other cats and humans; 6. slowed re-learning due to low motivation and erratic or perseverative performance on both simple and complex tasks; and 7. severe disorganization of adaptive behavior af...

Lesions to the olfactory stalk, medial olfactory area, and hippocampus were produced in rats at 3–19 days of age. Delayed puberty occurred in the females with bilateral olfactory stalk and medial olfactory area lesions. Unilateral lesions of the olfactory stalk were also effective in delaying vaginal opening. Deficiencies in growth and smaller endocrine organs occurred in both sexes with a variety of lesions. Early handling affected final body and adrenal weights in both operated and control rats.

Our preliminary observations lead us to conclude that members of M. speciosa made excellent subjects for behavioural and neuropsychological investigations. To judge from their learning scores, rich behavioural repertoire, and social interaction, these monkeys are at least as intelligent as M. mulatta. They have proved to be naturally docile and submit readily to laboratory routine. Since they are so easily managed, we regard them as superior to M. mulatta for investigations where handling becomes necessary.

environment. Recent field studies of the social behavior of a variety of subhuman primates have emphasized the rich repertoire of social interactions and their adaptive significance for the species.l-3 These studies have also emphasized the differences in individual as well as social behavior that exists between species of primates. However, these differences have generally not been an important consideration in assessing the behavioral changes occurring from experimental brain injury. Therefore, a series of experiments have been planned to study the effects of brain lesions on social behavior both in the laboratory and in the field in several species of Old-World monkeys. Eventually, it may be possible to define more clearly those aspects of a syndrome which are species specific, as well as other aspects which are characteristic of most subhuman primates. Comparison of the behavioral changes seen in the field with those observed in the laboratory may help to clarify the influence of caging and to make laboratory observations more pertinent. For the present experiment we chose to ablate the amygdaloid nuc1ei.S Under laboratory conditions, bilateral lesions of the amygdaloid nuclei in the individually caged, adult rhesus monkey (M. mulutta) results in a syndrome of relative docility, especially toward man, hyperorality, coprophagia and hypersexuality.4 Two studies have examined the effects of amygdalectomy on social interaction in groups of laboratory housed macaques. ROSVOLD, MIRSKY and PRIBRAM~ have reported that

In an attempt to specify physiologically the emotional states of sexual arousal and anxiety occurring independently and/or simultaneously, male subjects were shown two erotic movies (one heterosexual and one male homosexual) and a suspense movie, while pupil size, heart rate and plasma 17-hydroxycor

An elevated plasma 17-OHCS was observed in rats self-stimulating for 1 hr., especially those implanted in the region of the medial forebrain bundle in the hypothalamus. This is interpreted to mean that ACTH was released and thus a stress response occurred despite the fact that intracranial shock in these brain sites has reinforcing properties.

In summary, the results of early amygdala lesions revealed no growth deficit, no stupor in animals operated prior to 72 days of age, slight acceleration of somato-motor development, and no differences in the time of appearance of play and aggression. Transient hypersexuality first appeared in the operated animals at six months of age, and in some, heightened agressiveness became apparent at the time. Ovarian hypertrophy was the only notable effect of early amygdala lesions on endocrine development.

Ss, 13 Macaca speciosa, 7 Macaca mulatta and 10 Macaca ira monkeys were restrained for 24 hr. Before and after restraint blood samples were drawn from 18 but only once from 12 monkeys. Plasma 17-OHCS levels of all species increased after restraint. Findings are related to genetic and stress factors.

Lesions in the amygdaloid nuclei have different effects on male and female monkeys. While there is typically a redirection in aggressive behavior, and changes in sexual behavior, there are also instances of heightened aggressivity. This paradoxical effect appears to be restricted to females. Evidence exists linking this sex difference to gonadal hormones and differential aspects of the central nervous system in the male and the female.

Members of Macaca speciosa have characteristics that make them suitable primates for neuropsychological investigation. They work well in discrimination training, have a varied behavioral repertoire and social interaction, and seem to be at least as intelligent as M. mulatta. They are docile and submit readily to laboratory routine.

Initiated social interactions of Macaca speciosa are decreased during the period of treatment with alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine, an inhibitor of catecholamine synthesis. The treated animals maintained stable body weights and appeared to be healthy. Similar depletion of indoleamines with p-chlorophenylalanine does not change these same observed behaviors in spite of weight loss, hair loss, ataxia, and debilitation in some of the animals.

Kittens sustaining bilateral amygdalectomy failed to show behavioral changes seen in the adult after subjection to similar lesions. No growth deficits or hypopituitarism occurred in the kittens. A certain level of neuroendocrine maturation may be necessary for the effects of amygdalectomy to be manifested.

Introduction Previous studies have shown that bilateral ablation of the amygdaloid nuclei and surrounding rhinencephalic structures in rodents, carnivores, and primates is uniquely characterized by a specific pattern of behavior. Animals sustaining such lesions exhibit behavior that is dominated by increased responsiveness to visual stimuli, hyperactivity, exaggerated oral activity, inability to recognize objects visually, loss of fear, and an increase in amount and diversity of sexual behavior. 6,14-16,18-21,24 Anatomical and electrophysiological studies of the amygdaloid nucleus and related structures have revealed efferent projections from the amygdala to widespread areas of the cortex and subcortex. 1,8-11 More specifically, the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus appears to be a strong recipient of fibers arising from the amygdaloid complex. Electrolytic lesions of the ventromedial nucleus in cats and rats 2,12,23 have given rise to changes in behavior characterized by savage and aggressive attacks on other animals when approached, obesity, and hyposexual activity. In

Combined bilateral lesions of frontal granular cortex and caudate nucleus were produced in 7 monkeys between the 2nd and 56th postnatal day. When comparisons were made with 4 monkeys which had previously sustained bilateral resections of frontal granular cortex alone at comparable ages, it was found that the frontal-caudates, in contrast to the frontals, displayed failure to thrive, somato-motor and growth deficiencies, postoperative seizures and later cognitive impairments. When tested at the 7th postoperative month, 2 of the 3 surviving frontal-caudates could not perform a delayed response task beyond a minimal (0 sec) delay interval. It was concluded that early reflexive and somato-motor function is principally mediated by subcortical systems but that some degree of representation also exists at cortical levels. In contrast to neocortex, the caudate nucleus appears to be involved in a neural system responsible for the retention of delayed response capacity following early brain injury.

Lesions of the amygdaloid nuclei were made in male and female post weaning but prepuberal rats. The majority of the operated animals died within two weeks of extreme inanition following complete aphagia and adipsia. A group of these aphagic animals was maintained for five months by force feeding. In addition, a small number of operated animals showed no disturbances in feeding and grew quite normally without force feeding. All of the survivingaphagic animals also showed tooth spiralling and did not groom. Reproductive performance, up to the delivery of the young (as far as was tested adequately) was normal in the operated females whether aphagic or not. The aphagic males did not mate (in spite of ongoing spermatogenesis and normal testis and seminal vesicle weight) but this is most likely a secondary effect of inanition on mating behaviour, not a direct effect of the lesion. Operated non-aphagic males showed normal fertility. No behavioral hypersexuality was observed in any of the operated males, but a number of males showed spontaneous ejaculations in the presence or absence of females. One of the aphagic males was also an “ejaculator” as was also an obese rat with an isolated lesion of the ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus. Anterior pituitary function seemed normal in all of the operated rats whether aphagic or not.

Summary Twenty adult female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were divided into 4 treatment groups of 5 subjects each; nonlesioned-nontrained (NLNT), nonlesioned-trained (NLT), lesioned-nontrained (LNT), and lesioned-trained (LT). All lesions were bilateral ablations of dorsolateral frontal cortex. The training consisted of color discrimination and delayed alternation. AChE activity was determined for 19 brain regions in each subject. Significant changes in AChE activity due to the lesion were found in orbital cortex, caudate nucleus and pons while training procedures produced significant changes only in the orbital cortex. The 3 brain areas in which significant AChE changes were found bear a close anatomical and functional relationship to the lesioned prefrontal cortex.

The eflect of uncinectomny on the social behavior of free-ranging rhesus monkeys was observed on Cayo Santiago Island. Operated subjects showed social indifjerence, failed to display appropriate aggressive and submissive gestures. were expelled from their social group, and evenitlually died. Two juvenile subjects with the lesion restricted to amygdala survived and have rejoinied their social group. Size of lesion and age at operation were major factors in determniting the degree of behavioral change.

Lesions of the rhinencephalon, primarily restricted to the amygdaloid complex, modify aggressive behavior of lynxes ( Lynx rufus), agoutis ( Dasyprocta agouti), monkeys ( Macacus rhesus) and domestic cats toward relative docility and precipitate a state of chronic hypersexuality. Relative docility was characterized by failure of the experimental animals to exhibit aggressive behavior, fear, or escape activity in the presence of threatening situations which precipitated such behavior in their preoperative periods. Hypersexuality was exhibited by marked increases in copulatory activity with males and females of their own and other animal species. It is concluded that the rhinencephalon and its diencephalic connections, in association with endocrine systems, are important regulators of emotional and sexual behavior of rodents, carnivores and primates.

The classic studies of Kluever and Bucy (1939), which by now have been reproduced repeatedly by many experimenters, have called attention to a syndrome of behavioral changes that occurs in the monkey after bilateral temporal lobectomy, or with lesion restricted to the amygdaloid nuclei. These changes can be briefly characterized as: 1) a decrease in belligerence and a reduction of fear toward normally fear-inducing objects including man; 2) a tendency to investigate orally and generally contact orally inedible objects including coprophagia and uriposia; 3) increased and inappropriate sexual behavior; 4) “hypermetamorphosis.”

The preservation of delayed response capacity in monkeys sustaining bilateral ablations of prefrontal cortex in infancy has been attributed to the intactness of the caudate nucleus, since combined prefrontal-caudate lesions in infant monkeys produce severe delayed response deficits at later testing. However, before concluding that the integrity of the caudate is essential, it must be shown that another type of combined lesion sustained in infancy is without substantial effect on later test performance. Since bilateral ablations of parieto-temporo-preoccipital (posterior association) cortex in adult monkeys are known to produce delayed-response deficits, a combined prefrontal-posterior association cortex lesion was judged to be the appropriate control. Accordingly, three infant monkeys were subjected to two-stage bilateral ablations of prefrontal and posterior association cortex prior to postnatal day 18. Testing on a series of delayed response problems was initiated between the eighth and tenth postnatal months. Test performances were found to be essentially equivalent to those of animals sustaining only a prefrontal ablation in infancy. In one preparation, a transient delayed response deficit during initial testing was attributed to minor caudate involvement. Although subtotal ablations in posterior association cortex were found in all cases, the massive lesions that were sustained make it unlikely that this area is functionally involved in preserving delayed response capacity in the early lesioned prefrontal monkey. These results tend to confirm our previous conclusion as to the functional importance of the caudate nucleus, possibly via its capacity to regulate locomotion and attention.

IN the monkey, bilateral amygdalectomy results in a number of behavioural changes which have been well documented1–4. These changes consist of (1) reduction in aggressiveness and relative tameness toward man; (2) increased orality, coprophagia and the mouthing of inedible objects; (3) hypermetamorphosis; and (4) hypersexuality. While these changes may be enhanced by extending the lesion to include the temporal neocortex and hippocampus, it has been established that these behavioural alterations can be produced by ablation of the amygdaloid nuclei alone2.

CONTRIBUTIONS to our knowledge on the role of neuroendocrine mechanisms in the regulation of sexual behavior in mammals have been carefully summarized and evaluated in two excellent reviews by Beach.* It is generally agreed that copulatory behavior of adult males of several subprimate species can be diminished by castration or by injury of the central nervous system. The observations of Beach and Zitrin† indicate that extensive but incomplete destruction of the neocortex markedly interferes with the coordination of sensorymotor components of coital behavior in male cats. After complete neodecortication their cats failed to exhibit sexual interest or overt patterns of mating behavior when placed in association with receptive females. From these findings it would seem that the neopallium of this male carnivore, in addition to contributing sensory-motor components, exerts a generalized facilitative influence upon subcortical structures involved in the mediation of sexual behavior. In addition to contributions from the neopallium

This volume is a record of the first conference on learning, remembering, and forgetting sponsored by the American Institute of Biological Sciences. The program and format is patterned after the Josiah Macey Foundation series of conferences on brain mechanisms and behavior. The purpose of this conference was to bring together an outstanding interdisciplinary group who are concerned with problems of learning and memory primarily at the cellular level. Among the participants are Sir John Eccles, Lawrence Kruger, Holgar Hyden, James McGaugh, Albert M. Uttley, Heinz Von Foerster, and Eugene Roberts. The presentations are informal, the leader initiating each discussion with his own data and area of interest. The other participants discuss their data relevant to the presentation. Questions, criticisms, and comments are freely interjected providing some sparkling, and at times, heated discussion. It is a highly readable book and its value is enhanced by an excellent bibliography, several

Dr. Ban presents in this small volume an excellent, concise review of Pavlov's contributions to physiological psychology, human conditioning techniques, as well as his views on psychopathology. The book is conveniently divided in four parts. The first is devoted to a description of Pavlov's behavioral experiments with a terminological description to explain the results. This will provide readers interested in the contemporary Russian psychological literature with a handy interpretive guide. There are additional chapters covering Pavlov's brain model and its relation to current concepts of brain function. While it has perhaps only historical significance for non-Russian neurophysiology, it again provides the reader with the terminology for understanding the Russian literature. The second part contains a review of pavlovian clinical psychopathology. While not considering himself a clinician, Pavlov wrote extensively on psychiatry and constructed a theory to explain human neurosis on the basis of his experimental findings. Two basic forms of