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This volume, dedicated to Professor Robert B. Lees on the occasion of his departure from the University of Illinois, contains 15 papers on a variety of linguistic topics: C. L. Baker, "Problems of Polarity in Counterfactuals"; Lawrence F. Bouton, "Do So: Do+Adverb"; Chin-chuan Cheng, "Domains of Phonological Rule Application"; Joseph F. Foster, "Rule Ordering and Apparent Irregularities in the Turkish Aorist Verb"; Mary Gallagher, "Does Meaning Grow on Trees"; Michael J. Kenstowicz, "Lithuanian Third Person Future"; Charles W. Kisseberth, "Vowel Elision in Tonkawa and Derivational Constraints"; Ronald W. Langacker, "English Question Intonation"; Seiichi Makino, "Two Proposals about Japanese Polite Expressions"; Frederick J. Newmeyer, "The 'Root Modal': Can It Be Transitive?"; Bohdan Saciuk, "Some Basic Rules of Portuguese Phonology"; Jerrold M. Sadock, "Whimperatives"; Mario Saltarelli, "Focus on Focus: Propositional Generative Grammar"; Anthony L. Vanek, "Grammatical Formatives: Some Basic Notions"; Bruce E. Willis, "Stress Assignment in Spanish." The volume begins with a brief dedicatory statement discussing Lees' contribution to the linguistics program at the University of Illinois. A bibliography of Lees' publications is also included. (FWB)

There are four articles in this report; the first three were written by Charles J. Fillmore: "Lexical Entries for Verbs,""Review of 'Componential Analysis of General Vocabulary--The Semantic Structure of a Set of Verbs in English, Hindi, and Japanese, Part II' by Edward Herman Bendix," and "Types of Lexical Information." These articles address themselves to questions about the form and information content of lexical entries. The fourth article is by Ilse Lehiste: "'Being' and 'Having' in Estonian." It is a study of the purely syntactic ways in which Estonian structures translatable with "have" differ from, but are related to, structures translatable with "be." The theoretical framework used is that of case grammar. Also included in this report is a list of the contents of"Working Papers in Linguistics, No. 1." (JD)

PROBLEMS WHICH ARISE IN CREATING BILINGUAL TRANSLATION DICTIONARIES WERE DISCUSSED. SOME OF THE MORE SIGNIFICANT CONCERNS IN BUILDING SUCH DICTIONARIES WERE OUTLINED AS (1) KNOWLEDGE OF THE POTENTIAL USER-GROUP, (2) AWARENESS OF SYNTACTICAL LANGUAGE DIFFERENCES, AND (3) ABILITY TO SKEW WHEN TRANSLATING FROM ONE LANGUAGE TO ANOTHER. EXAMPLES IN ENGLISH-JAPANESE AND ENGLISH-KOREAN DICTIONARIES WERE USED FOR ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES. THIS REPORT IS ONE OF A SERIES OF 13 PAPERS PRESENTED AT A CONFERENCE ON LEXICOGRAPHY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, NOVEMBER 11-12, 1960. (JH)

This discussion considers the process of subject raising, which takes the constituent subject out of the complement clause and makes it a constituent of the matrix clause and the occurrence of this process in Japanese and in other subject-object-verb (SOV) languages. The first part of the paper demonstrates why subject raising is not a common syntactic device in SOV languages and why it is difficult to prove that the transformation exists in these languages. The author suggests that there is, however, one sentence pattern in Japanese where subject raising is involved; the remainder of the paper is devoted to presenting evidence to prove the existence of this phenomenon. (VM)

This paper discusses the relationship between linguistic reconstructions and their historical validity using the case of Old Japanese (8th century A.D.) vowels as an example. Reconstructions throughout the paper include only those cases in which the modern reflexes and phonological correspondences between two or more genetically related languages and dialects are used as the only source of information. The discussion here reviews a comparative method approach and shows how the reconstruction approach used by the author goes beyond the comparative method. Examples are drawn from several Japanese dialects. (Author/VM)

This paper considers five possible analyses to explain dental alternations in Japanese and argues that the formulation approximating the actual historical development is likely to provide the most satisfactory synchronic description. The approaches considered are distributional analysis, strict historical interpretation, modified historical interpretation, restructured analysis, and crazy interpretation. The paper concludes that the modified historical interpretation and restructured analysis have the greatest potential since they both restructure versions of the historic changes. (VM)

This paper considers whether the negative transportation (NT) rule operating in English is operative also in Japanese and whether investigation of the phenomenon in Japanese may provide new insights for English research. The discussion begins with an explanation and examples of the NT rule in English. Japanese cases are then studied, and the semantic and structural implications considered. The author states that if the line of thinking presented in the paper turns out to be valid, it presents a case in which semantic interpretation may be preceded and followed by transformations, and even a cooccurrence restriction may sometimes be accounted for only after certain semantic interpretations. (VM)

This report on speech research contains papers describing experiments involving both information processing and speech production. The papers concerned with information processing cover such topics as peripheral and central processes in vision, separate speech and nonspeech processing in dichotic listening, and dichotic fusion along an acoustic continuum. Speech production topics covered include the activity of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles in voicing control, velopharyngeal function in oral/nasal articulation and voicing gestures, laryngeal adjustments for vowel devoicing in Japanese, vowel stress and articulatory reorganization, tension in some American English vowels, and word-final stops in Thai. One paper in the collection concerns reading machines for the blind. The final paper discusses the evolution of human speech anatomy. A list of publications and reports is provided along with author and title indexes to the previous status reports on speech research. (VM)

The three papers contained in this document cover particular issues in diverse languages. The first concerns the distribution and function of postpositions in Awutu, an African language; the main function of such morphemes is marking case. The second paper discusses the unusual phonology system of Wichita; this American Indian language is characterized by a three-vowel system that has only height contrasts and a phonemic consonant system with neither labials nor nasals. The final paper discusses the Japanese case markers "wa" and "ga" within a framework similar to Fillmore's case grammar; the author argues on both semantic and syntactic grounds that wa- and ga-noun phrases are transformationally derived from conjoined sentences. (VM)

It has been generally understood that Japanese has two grammatical tenses, past and non-past. However, there are statements about future events which use the "past tense." Furthermore, for certain verbs, the "past tense" is not confined to describing strictly a past event. This paper seeks to clarify the meaning of tense in Japanese and to show the relationship between grammatical tense in a sentence and the extra-linguistic time of events by introducing the notion of focus. Tense is examined in main and dependent clauses. (Author)

Rules of lexical derivation can be used to account for certain case-related regularities existing between Japanese non-potential verbs and the potential verbs derived from them. Lexical derivation analysis in comparison with a transformational approach is simpler; it requires less powerful rules and therefore makes a stronger claim; and it captures the native speaker's intuition that a particular potential-verb combination is a verb having its own cooccurrence possibilities but related to a corresponding non-potential verb in a predictable way. This paper discusses the lexical derivation approach and provides numerous examples of its use in the analysis of Japanese verbs and appropriate sentence structure. (Author/VM)

This paper seeks to formulate a principle that explains the working of the Japanese number system with respect to Japanese nouns and that defines the kinds of nouns and contexts that condition the forms of number expressions. It is the author's theory that in applying numbers to nouns, the Japanese make a formal distinction between things they conceive as being independent and self-contained and things they conceive as being dependent and attributive. A form containing a classifier implies that the object of quantification is felt to be independent; a form that omits the classifier implies that the object is felt to be attributive to something else. The author enlarges upon these theories and discusses exceptions which can be attributed to language styles or particular derivations. He establishes the categories of count noun, numeral suffix, numeral adjunct, and numerical compound to formalize his discussion. Concluding remarks concern Chinese. (VM)

This paper presents two views on the categorization of Japanese nouns, verbs, and adjectives into form classes: the traditional view and a view set forth in the writing of Suzuki Akira. The fundamental issue here is the criterion for categorization. Is it the meaning of words, or is it their grammatical behavior that determines the system of categories? The traditional view establishes a criterion that is grammatical--the presence or absence of inflection is crucial in categorization. Suzuki (Akira's) arguments for classification appeal to the overall regularity or simplicity of the language; his fundamental assumption is that the grammatical forms of Japanese reflect in a direct way its semantic aspects. Both approaches are illustrated with examples. (VM)

This final substantive report includes the working papers presented by the American and Japanese participants, notes on discussions, a summary of an address by William Labov, and draft proposals for joint sociolinguistic research. The working papers involve several sociolinguistic issues in Japanese-American and Japanese culture. The American papers concern lexical borrowing by Japanese Americans in Hawaii, phonological reduction rules for evaluation in sociolinguistic analysis, sociolinguistic factors inhibiting Japanese-American communication, language and social change, and mutual understanding between Japanese and Americans. The Japanese papers treat cultural comparisons, language behavior and cultural patterns, the ethnography of self-reference and address in Japanese, approaches to studying contrasting cultures, and the use of Japanese invective words or curses. References and notes are included with the papers along with a summary of the discussions that followed the presentation of each paper. (VM)

This paper discusses the historical conditions and socio-political factors affecting the development of Japanese language schools in Hawaii. It traces the development of these schools from the time they were established to prepare Japanese children for their eventual return to Japan through years of legal battles and disfavor to the present, when the schools enjoy full rights to teach Japanese but suffer from a lack of student enthusiasm and motivation because of American acculturation on the part of the third and fourth generation Japanese-American children. (VM)

The paper discusses lexical evidence proposed by Samuel E. Martin, including later revisions thereof by R.A. Miller, concerning a genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, based on an examination of vowel changes in Middle Korean and Old Japanese. While the author rejects Chinese phonetic evidence as inconclusive and affirms the legitimacy of internal evidence, he does propose revisions for those of Martin's rules which provide only partial correspondence between the two languages. (DD)

This paper is concerned with individualizing instruction for advanced students in secondary school language programs. Learning Activity Packets are prescribed as the ideal means of individualizing instruction in such programs. Five aspects of this method of instruction are examined: (1) the nature of individualized instruction, (2) the value of individualized instruction, including student contracts, (3) a description of individualized instruction in a representative high school language Program, (4) developing Learning Activity Packets, and (5) an outline of a sample Learning Activity Packet based on "LAP--Unit One: Modern Impersonal Style of Written Japanese." (RL)

This paper attempts to certify that certain changes in voicing and aspiration, namely the shift from Kan'on to Go'on, occurred during the proto-Japanese period. Based on Middle Chinese data, proto-Korean-Japanese systems, Tibetan transcriptions of Chinese texts, and internal Japanese evidence, the authors date the transition roughly in the 7th century. A bibliography of referneces is included. (DD)

In order to mechanize the processing of natural language, the linguist must make the machine interpret the meaning, or semantic content of the language, in some way or other. This means that the machine should extract not only syntactic but also semantic information from the source sentence through the analysis of it. In this paper, the authors describe their opinions as to the structure of language from the viewpoint of mechanical processing. Then two methods of introducing semantic information into the analysis process are proposed, followed by a brief description of the authors' method of English sentence analysis. Finally, reference is made to the system of machine translation. An example of Japanese sentence analysis is appended. (Author/FWB)

The principal claim of this paper is that the Japanese passive consists of two different constructions, each derived from a distinct deep structure and each having associated with it a distinct set of syntactic and semantic properties. One of these constructions, the "adversative passive," implies that the grammatical subject of the sentence is adversely affected by the action expressed by the verb. The other construction is as neutral in meaning as the English passive and is referred to here as the "pure passive." Previous treatments of the passive (Bloch, Martin, and Jorden) are discussed briefly and it is concluded that the analysis offered in this paper comes the closest to an accurate description of the syntactic and semantic facts. It is also felt that the adversative passive may be a traditional Japanese construction while the pure passive is a relatively new innovation in Japanese due to the influence of translation from Western language into Japanese. (See also AL 001 564.) (JD)

IN A PREVIOUS PAPER (PRESENTED AT THE TWELFTH ANNUAL NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LINGUISTICS) THE AUTHOR POINTED OUT (1) THE RATIO OF SENTENCES WITH SUBJECTS TO SUBJECTLESS SENTENCES IN ENGLISH IS TWO TO ONE, WHEREAS IN JAPANESE IT IS ONE TO FOUR. (2) IF THE ENGLISH MAJOR SENTENCE TYPE CAN BE SAID TO CONSIST OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, THE JAPANESE MAJOR SENTENCE TYPE CAN BE SAID TO CONSIST OF PREDICATE ONLY. (3) BLOCH'S CONCEPT OF THE JAPANESE SENTENCE AS A PAUSE GROUP CONSISTING OF A PREDICATE ONLY IS APPROPRIATE, BUT HIS IDEA OF DIVIDING THE PREDICATES INTO TWO TYPES--FINAL PREDICATE AND NON-FINAL PREDICATE--BASED ON INTONATION IS NOT APPROPRIATE. THE CONCLUSION WAS REACHED THAT SINCE THE MAJOR SENTENCE TYPE OF JAPANESE IS NOT ONLY SUBJECTLESS BUT ALSO FRAGMENTARY OR ELLIPTICAL, IT IS NOT APPROPRIATE FIRST TO POSTULATE A KERNEL SENTENCE CONSISTING OF A SUBJECT AND A PREDICATE AND THEN TO DELETE THE SUBJECT. IN THIS PAPER, WHICH CONTINUES THE DISCUSSION, THE AUTHOR CONSIDERS JAPANESE AS BELONGING TO NEITHER THE LATIN-ENGLISH NOR THE CHINESE GROUP, BUT BEING A "BORDERLINE" CASE. ALTHOUGH SOME JAPANESE VERB FORMS (NEUTRAL, HONORIFIC, AND HUMBLE) LOOK LIKE LATIN SENTENCE-WORDS IN WHICH SUBJECT AND PREDICATE ARE FUSSED, THEY DO NOT REGULARLY INCLUDE SUBJECTS. IN DISCUSSING JAPANESE SYNTAX, IT IS USUALLY AGREED THAT A PREDICATE NEED NOT NECESSARILY BE PROVIDED WITH A TOPIC. THE IMPRESSION THAT IN JAPANESE THE SUBJECT IS OPTIONAL IS NOT ACCURATE. THE FACT THAT SOME SUBJECTS ARE OPTIONAL, SOME OTHERS ARE OBLIGATORY, AND STILL OTHERS MUST NOT BE OVERTLY STATED CAN BE COMPARED WITH THE USAGE OF ENGLISH ARTICLES. JAPANESE SYNTAX WOULD BE SENSELESS UNLESS IT IS ANALYZED AND DESCRIBED IN DETAIL FROM THE VIEWPOINT THAT SENTENCES ARE LINGUISTIC UNITS OF A LARGER CONSTRUCTION. THIS PAPER WAS PRESENTED MARCH 10, 1968 AT THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LINGUISTICS IN NEW YORK, SPONSORED BY THE LINGUISTIC CIRCLE OF NEW YORK. (AMM)

In this paper, the author raises the question of exactly which information is of fundamental importance in the construction of phonological tasks in a course in a foreign language. He attempts to indicate an answer with respect to a particular problem encountered by native speakers of Japanese and Russian in learning English: substitution of different sounds for the interdental fricatives of English. He finds conventional phonemics and contrastive analysis deficient as bases for the explanation of this problem and believes that generative phonology provides a more promising basis. The paper concludes with suggestions for incorporating information from a generative phonology into a set of tasks which would have the goal of eliminating the observed interference behavior. (DO)

This paper explains some properties and restrictions involved in phenomena of topicalization in Japanese. The first section reviews certain properties involved in simplex topical sentences; the second section reveals certain constraints on topicalization involved in complex sentences. Section Three pursues one consequence suggested by those constraints, namely, the existence of a rule of complement subject-raising in Japanese. (Author)

"The Path" is a film of a Japanese tea ritual, and the first reaction of most viewers is a sense of the anxiety and frustration of being submerged in a culture which one does not understand. This companion paper, together with repeated viewings and discussions, is designed to foster understanding of Japanese culture, particularly psychology and aesthetics. The second part of the paper describes the making of "The Path" in some detail, including a detailed description of the film that links the photography and sound recording to the film-makers intention and ethnographic notations. (RH)

THE MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION SPONSORED A CONFERENCE IN FEBRUARY 1960 AT WHICH THE PARTICIPANTS PRESENTED WORKING PAPERS ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OF ORIENTAL LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS. THE PAPERS INCLUDED DISCUSSIONS ON--(1) PROGRAMS IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES, (2) WRITTEN MATERIALS, (3) PREPARATION OF GRADED MATERIALS, AND (4) AUDIOVISUAL AIDS USED IN TEACHING LANGUAGES. (RS)

Description of a project involving the use of the video-tape recorder in a beginning course in Japanese focuses on cultural implications of basic unit dialogues. Instant replay, close-up, and other camera techniques allow students to concentrate on cross-cultural phenomena which are normally not perceived without the use of media. General procedures for use of the video-tape recorder are discussed and accompanied by a sample unit dialogue with commentary from an introductory Japanese text. (RL)

The designation of the Japanese word class "joshi" (in English known as particles, post-positional case markers, or relationals) by the term te-ni-wo-ha can be traced to the early superimposition of the Chinese writing system on Japanese speech. Because of the structural differences between the two languages and the existence of elements in Japanese not covered by the Chinese writing system, the Japanese developed a notational chart of dots to be added to the Chinese characters. Such a dot-code system was used to express relationships of the joshi and was designated te-ni-wo-ha by combining the names of the particles at the four corners of the chart. The term te-ni-wo-ha remains today even though the original dot-code system no longer exists and the Chinese characters used for writing Japanese are phonological representations containing no graphic, inherently syntactic indication of meaning. (VM)

The resource unit prepared for grade one is the fourth in a series on the theme of Families Around the World. For this study of the Japanese family, background material is presented for the teacher describing the site of Suye Mura, family structure, basic physical needs, a typical day, socialization, communication, village life today, and the comparison of a village and city. Major objectives of the course are to help students understand culture as a learned behavior, social organization, social process, and social, political, and economic factors related to location. Other objectives for this cultural study are defined, noting concepts and objectives as well as attitudes and skills to be developed. Teaching strategies are described for 64 activities in a format designed to help teachers see the relationships among objectives, content, teaching procedures, and materials of instruction. Audiovisual aids and printed materials to be used are listed with each activity and a general list of educational media is given. Appendices include pupil materials prepared for this unit, such as maps, and activities that include flower arranging, paper folding, stories, and songs. Related documents are ED 051 207 through ED 051 034; and SO 005 391 through SO 005 396. (SJM)

This paper explains the main concepts of communicative grammar and provides a detailed view of how communicative grammar analyses language at various levels. Language is discussed in terms of communication; the central elements in the analysis are those that carry information. Communicative grammar seeks to describe the process of the linguistic formulation of a thought. Details for analysis are provided here along with examples. Implications for theoretical, applied, and computational linguistics, language instruction, and translation are noted. A bibliography is included. (VM)

Students of Japanese history (graduate students with language competence seeking a career in Japanese studies, undergraduates studying the Japanese language, and non-linguist undergraduates and graduate students studying Japanese history for a variety of reasons) have to deal with the Japanese language in different ways. They should all, however, seriously consider the time it takes to acquire a "basic mastery" of the language (roughly three times as long as for a Romance language). They should also consider the content of the language study, considered even more important by the author than the time element involved. Even advanced students who are linguistically competent to read scholarly articles on Japanese history find them difficult, not because of the language, but because of the content. The time an undergraduate student of history spends in language study could be more profitably used to take courses in anthropology, literature in translation, political science, or sociology. While Japanese language study "has utility at every level for generally recognized purposes," language instruction should not be expected to help in understanding Japanese history. Conversely, the author feels that the study of Japanese history does not complement language training to a significant degree. (AMM)

The purpose of this paper is to review recent Soviet research on the child's development of Russian grammar, with detailed information on valuable methods for investigating this process. Cross-linguistic comparisons are made where applicable in view of their relevance for the study of universal aspects of language acquisition and linguistic competence. Specific aspects of linguistic ontogenesis are discussed: (1) the structure of two-word sentences; (2) word order; (3) inflections and word classes; and (4) comprehension. A brief history of developmental psycholinguistics in the USSR is included. Listed are diaries and observational studies of monolingual and bilingual children, and a bibliography which includes these and general background materials. (KL)

Six hundred and sixteen CVC stimulus syllables beginning with /l/ and /r/ were presented by tape recording to six Japanese foreign students at Indiana University. Analysis of variance showed the effect of the final consonant variable on the identification of initial /l/ and /r/ was significant at the .05 level; the effect of the CV interaction was significant at the .01 level. Response scores for the CV interaction pairs correspond closely to the magnitude of the third formant shift from /l/ and /r/ to the various syllable nuclei determined by Lehiste. Specific results, correlations with frequency of occurrence and acoustic data, and implications for improving /l/ and /r/ identification by native speakers of Japanese are discussed. (Author/DO)

Until the coming of World War II, little interest was shown in the teaching of Japanese outside Japan except for the elementary schools set up to inculcate the ways of the homeland among the offspring of Japanese emigrants to places like Hawaii, the Pacific Coast of North America, and Brazil. A few European and American universities offered limited instruction, primarily for Orientalists. The author describes the development of teaching materials and programs in Japanese during the 1940's and the ensuing years. His evaluation of major texts is followed by a suggested list of materials suitable for various levels of study. Aslo cited are common criticisms that have been made of some of the listed works. Current needs of courses for college level are discussed and the programs presently engaged in materials preparation and teacher training are described. Appendix I, "Sociolinguistic Notes on Japanese," and Appendix II, "Works Dealing with the Teaching of Japanese," conclude the paper. (AMM)

THE AUTHOR, WHO IS A HISTORIAN, POINTS OUT THE PRACTICAL PROBLEMS OF TEACHERS IN SMALL COLLEGES WHO ARE FACED WITH TEACHING ASIAN LANGUAGES IN ADDITION TO SURVEY COURSES IN FAR EASTERN CULTURAL HISTORY. HE HAS FOUND THAT A COURSE IN THE CULTURAL HISTORY OF JAPAN OR CHINA WILL LEAD TO A DESIRE ON THE PART OF SOME STUDENTS TO LEARN SOMETHING ABOUT THE JAPANESE OR CHINESE LANGUAGE. BECAUSE OF THESE INTERRELATED INTERESTS, A COLLEGE PLACING THE JAPANESE OR CHINESE LANGUAGE IN ITS CURRICULUM SHOULD ALSO OFFER A COURSE IN JAPANESE OR CHINESE HISTORY. WHILE IT IS IMPRACTICAL TO OFFER TOO MANY MAJOR FIELDS IN A SMALL COLLEGE, A STUDENT IN SUCH A SCHOOL COULD MAJOR IN ANY OF A NUMBER OF EXISTING DEPARTMENTS AND USE ASIAN STUDIES COURSES FOR CREDIT TOWARD HIS MAJOR. THOSE INTERESTED IN CONTINUING BEYOND THE LIMITS OF A SMALL SCHOOL CURRICULUM SHOULD INVESTIGATE THE COOPERATIVE UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMS FOR CRITICAL LANGUAGES AT PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, OR AVAILABLE SUMMER INSTITUTES OFFERING ADVANCED STUDIES IN THESE LANGUAGES. AN OVERRIDING PROBLEM IN THE AREA OF METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN THE SMALL COLLEGES IS FINDING ADEQUATE TIME FOR LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION. ANOTHER PROBLEM IS FINDING TEXTBOOKS WHICH ARE SATISFACTORY FOR THE NEEDS OF A SMALL SCHOOL. THE AUTHOR STRESSES THE NEED FOR LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION TEXTS IN MODERN JAPANESE WHICH WILL TAKE INTO ACCOUNT AMONG OTHER THINGS THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL AND SOCIAL CONTENT AS WELL AS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WRITTEN AND SPOKEN JAPANESE, AND TEXTBOOKS WRITTEN IN A STYLE WHICH IS EASILY COMPREHENSIBLE TO USERS WHO ARE NOT SCIENTIFIC LINGUISTS. THIS PAPER WAS READ AT THE SOUTHEAST REGIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR ASIAN STUDIES, FREDERICKSBURG, VIRGINIA, 4 FEBRUARY 1967. IT APPEARED IN "LIBERAL EDUCATION," VOLUME LIII, NUMBER 2, MAY 1967, PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN COLLEGES, 1818 R STREET N.W., WASHINGTON, D.C. 20009. (AMM)

One of the objectives of this paper is to point out that the essential function of Chinese characters for the reader of Japanese is that of mediating, or evoking the sounds of Japanese directly, and the meanings secondarily, as the meanings are derived from the sounds. The author suggests that this is what happens, despite the fact that Chinese characters are known as "ideographs" (graphic representations of objects or thoughts); he prefers to call Chinese characters "morphographs"--they elicit auditory responses, or phoneme sequences, and function as graphic representations of the morphemes of the language. From these phoneme sequences, whether verbalized or silently conceptualized, come the meanings or ideas being communicated. The ultimate step in the evolution of graphic symbols from representations of objects and thoughts to representations of morphemes is the complete cancellation of any connection that the graphic symbol has with meaning (as in the English alphabet and the syllabary systems of Japanese). Topics dealt with are the Kanji used by Japanese scholars as Chinese words, the use of Chinese characters as phonetic symbols, the introduction of Chinese loan-words, homophony, modern occurrence and function, and recent investigations. In summary, the author states that the occurrence of approximately 2,000 Chinese characters in Japanese writing is excessive and inefficient. (AMM)

APPROXIMATELY 480 HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS TAKING JAPANESE AT FOUR LOS ANGELES CITY HIGH SCHOOLS WERE STUDIED TO DETERMINE HOW EXPOSURE TO JAPANESE OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM INFLUENCED THE STUDENTS' WORK IN CLASS. THIS REPORT IS BASED ON RESPONSES TO QUESTIONNAIRES FILLED OUT BY 303 OF THE STUDENTS ABOUT THEIR EXPOSURE TO JAPANESE AT HOME, THEIR BIRTHPLACE, AND THEIR SELF-EVALUATION OF PROFICIENCY IN READING, SPEAKING, LEARNING VOCABULARY, AND UNDERSTANDING GRAMMAR. FIVE GROUPS WERE ESTABLISHED RANGING FROM THOSE WITH DAILY EXPOSURE TO JAPANESE (157 STUDENTS) TO STUDENTS WITHOUT ANY CONTACT WITH THE LANGUAGE OUTSIDE OF CLASS (37). IT WAS FOUND THAT THOSE GROUPS WITH GREATER EXPOSURE TO JAPANESE RATED GRAMMAR MORE DIFFICULT THAN VOCABULARY OR "HEARING." STUDENTS WITHOUT FREQUENT EXPOSURE TO THE TARGET LANGUAGE HAD MORE DIFFICULTY WITH "HEARING" THAN WITH GRAMMAR. THE TEACHERS OF THESE CLASSES COMMENTED THAT READING ABILITY AND GRAMMAR LEARNING SEEM LEAST AFFECTED BY OUTSIDE EXPOSURE TO JAPANESE, WHILE THERE IS A MARKED DIFFERENCE AMONG THE GROUPS IN RATE OF LEARNING VOCABULARY AND SPEAKING ABILITY. THIS REPORT INCLUDES SUGGESTED TEACHING TECHNIQUES FOR HETEROGENEOUS CLASSES. IT WILL BE FOLLOWED BY A SECOND REPORT ANALYZING THE RESULTS OF WRITTEN AND ORAL TESTS GIVEN TO THE SAME STUDENTS. THIS PAPER WAS PRESENTED AT THE 20TH UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY FOREIGN LANGUAGE CONFERENCE, LEXINGTON, APRIL 27-29, 1967. (JD)

IN ANALYZING WAYS BY WHICH VARIOUS LANGUAGES SIGNAL THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ELEMENTS IN A SENTENCE, ONE APPROACH (THAT OF TRANSFORMATION THEORY) IS TO RELATE EMPHASIS TO A TOPIC-COMMENT RELATIONSHIP. A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SEVERAL ENGLISH, TURKISH, AND JAPANESE SENTENCES THAT TAKE DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF EMPHASIS SUGGESTS THAT IN EACH CASE THE SPEAKER MUST CHOOSE WHICH ELEMENT IS THE TOPIC AND WHICH IS A COMMENT ON THE TOPIC. THIS CHOICE OF TOPIC-COMMENT STRUCTURE IS COMMON TO MANY LANGUAGES, AND IN SOME LANGUAGES THE SIGNALS OF THESE RELATIONSHIPS ARE AN IMPORTANT PART OF SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE. FOR EXAMPLE, THIS RELATIONSHIP IS SIGNALED IN ENGLISH BY RELATIVE STRESS, IN TURKISH BY WORD ORDER, AND IN JAPANESE BY SEPARATE MORPHEMES. OF THE SEVERAL WAYS OF ANALYZING THIS PHENOMENON, ONE (THE TAGMEMIC APPROACH) IS TO ALLOW THE DEEP STRUCTURE TO DEVELOP BOTH A TOPIC-COMMENT STRUCTURE AND AN INDEPENDENT PHRASE STRUCTURE. ALTHOUGH A SENTENCE MAY HAVE IDENTICAL TOPIC-COMMENT STRUCTURE AND PHRASE STRUCTURE MARKERS, A NUMBER OF UNIQUE COMPOSITE DEEP STRUCTURES MAY RESULT FROM MAPPING THE PHRASE STRUCTURE ONTO THE TOPIC-COMMENT STRUCTURE IN DIFFERENT WAYS. THIS PAPER WAS PRESENTED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY FOREIGN LANGUAGE CONFERENCE (20TH, APRIL 29, 1967). (JD)

Paper presented at the Language, Culture, and Society session of the Annual Conference of Asian Studies on the Pacific Coast, Vancouver, B.C., June 14, 1973. (DD)