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The response measure in which conditioning is measured ranges from the eyelid to electrodermal and vascular responses. Cognition, in the sense utilized by most of these experimenters, deals with awareness by the subject of something. Awareness is an essential ingredient of the development of expectancies. In the count-up to a noxious stimulus, studies, subjects can develop expectancies about the likelihood of occurrence of the stimuli, as well as expectancies about the time of occurrence of stimuli.

The article studies the concepts of magnetism held by elementary school children. The study examines whether the children's concepts of magnetism parallel the historical development of man's knowledge of the subject. Children were questioned individually by the author. Each child was asked with the following basic questions: Why do magnets pick up metals?; Will a magnet pick up paper?; Why does this end (N) of a magnet attract this end (S)?; and what is the difference between magnetism and gravity? Children's concepts of magnetism were classified according to the following topics: Composition, Power, Electricity, Earth, Gravity, Magic, Temperature, Pressure and Unclassified. Concepts allude to operations of glue, magic, temperature, pressure, rust, size, physical composition, chemical composition and mechanical force.

Cognitive styles have been described as the distinctive ways in which individuals come to grips with reality. This research paper holds that such styles are manifestations of different response probabilities or response strengths in certain types or classes of behaviors. A cognitive style may manifest itself as a directive influence on behavior, i.e., certain responses have a greater probability of occurrence in ambiguous situations, or as an ability to resist disruption under interference conditions such as distraction. It is assumed that these response characteristics are common to responses within certain classes of behavior. A specific style or pattern appears, then, whenever a particular class of behavior is elicited. The present paper describes certain behavioral classes within which specific cognitive styles may be expected. Researchers have previously demonstrated a cognitive style involving conceptual and perceptual-motor classes of behavior. Subsequent unpublished work, however, has suggested that this style, which is termed conceptual versus perceptual-motor dominance, is limited to conceptual and perceptual-motor tasks which are novel, difficult, or concentration-demanding.

The central theme of this paper is that the role of the sociologist in theological education and in religious research is inextricably related to the type of cognitive structure that informs conception of the nature of sociology and of its relationship to other sciences. The manner in which this issue is resolved will commit the sociologist to some philosophic or theological tradition, either explicitly or by implication. Dominant cognitive structures extant in current American sociological discussions are informed primarily by the atomistic heritage of the famous Greek philosopher Democritus in classical Greek philosophy, or by the skeptical tradition in the heritage of the Greek Sophist or by some combination of the two. The Problem of the relationship between theology and sociology considered formally, four approaches to the relationship between theology and sociology are possible. Two of the approaches will make distinctions between various disciplines and two will argue for a basic unity of the sciences, although one of the latter will usually distinguish between science and an area of nonscience, in which theology would find its place.

The article presents an elaboration of the paper of Joachim F. Wohlwill on the dimensions of a child's cognitive development from perception to inference. Aside from discussing his proposed approached to conceptual and perceptual development, the paper of Wohlwill tackled several broader issues regarding the requirements for any theory of conceptual and perceptual development. Wohlwill's paper also clarified the processes which underlie the shift from one stage of cognitive development to another.

The thesis of this paper is that there are two styles of creativity; one a measured, problem-solving approach to the development of new knowledge, and the other, an emotional, and comparatively uncontrolled, free expression. This duality has a long tradition, for example, the distinction made in the 18th Century between Enlightenment (or Classicism) and Romanticism, in the 19th Century, and in the zone between the "two cultures," scientific and literary. This paper investigates whether corresponding styles of creativity can be discovered. A study was reported in which two types of behavior appeared a permissive, expressive type, and a controlled, coping type. Both of these correlated positively with self- reported creativity. A second study contrasted the correlates of originality on tests of divergent thinking with originality on projective tests. Two clusters emerged, one representing competent, stable, resourceful personalities who scored high on divergent thinking tests of originality, the other representing impulsive, emotionally expressive, imaginative persons who scored high on projective test originality. It was concluded that there are two creativity styles corresponding to the two types of cognitive process, and these styles were labeled "cold" creativity and "hot" creativity. Both styles play a part, in varying proportions, in any creativity process Performance on the divergent thinking tests of originality is more closely related to cold than hot creativity and, therefore, the distinction does not correspond with that between convergent and divergent thinking. Nor does it correspond with differences between scientific and artistic interests and creativity.

This paper explores some of the theoretical consequences of a previously published approach to human motivation (20-24). Its immediate purpose is to help generalize the theory of basic need-gratification, an important though neglected aspect of general-dynamic theory. It should serve as a positive or healthy balance to the current one-sided stress on frustration and pathology. Gratification-theory is obviously a special, limited or partial theory, not capable of independent existence or validity. For present purposes the most relevant propositions of this motivation theory are that the motivational life of the individual has organization or structure, sometimes almost unitary. The chief principle of organization is the arrangement of needs in a hierarchy of lesser or greater priority or potency. The chief dynamic principle animating this organization is the emergence of less potent needs upon gratification of the more potent ones. The cognitive needs seem to form another hierarchy. The relations between this cognitive hierarchy and the hierarchy of emotional needs are not at present clear.

The paper studies a pattern of thought, sometimes called "the practical syllogism". The first premise of this pattern is a statement about an agent's intention to achieve a certain result. The second premise is a statement about what he considers necessary for him to do in order to achieve this aim. The conclusion is a statement to the effect, roughly speaking, that the agent proceeds to do the necessary things. What is the logical status of this type of argument or inference? The paper purports to show that the argument, when it is logically conclusive, is a schema of understanding behaviour in the light of assumed intentions and cognitive attitudes of an agent The argument also has uses for explanatory and predictive purposes. The author contends that, as a schema of explanation, the practical inference pattern holds a position in the human and social sciences similar to that of the deductive-nomological inference pattern ("the covering law model") in the natural sciences. Since the patterns are of different logical type, there is thus also a difference in kind between explanation in the natural sciences and in the sciences of man. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an elaboration of the papers of Herbert A. Simon on "Computer Simulation of Human Thinking and Problem Solving" and "An Information Processing Theory of Intellectual Development." The papers explore whether the inclusion in a computer simulation of the initial variations in state leads to uses of materials at various degrees of cognitive development. Simon suggests that the building of an information-processing system which mimics child behavior at a specific stage of development provides a "theory of the child" at that stage.

The article presents an elaboration of the paper of Barbel Inhelder on some aspects of Jean Piaget's genetic approach to cognition. The paper of Inhelder concentrated on the idea of reversibility which in her view is one of the most important marks of thought operations in the formal and concrete stages of thinking. Inhelder elaborated on the two forms of reversibility which are negation and reciprocity. According to her, inversion infers that displacements in one direction can be set aside by displacements in another direction.

This paper examines parallels between the combination of particular instances of a cue trait to make a single judgement and the combination of judgements into a compound impression. Predictions derived from a differential weighted averaging model are tested and confirmed, and the implications for theories of impression formation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an interpretation of inconsistent remarks which subjects made in explaining their erroneous solutions to a difficult deductive problem. Four half-masked cards of the following types were presented: (a) a number in the lower half, (b) a blank in the upper half, (c) a letter in the upper half, and (d) a blank in the lower half. The problem is to say which cards need to be unmasked to determine decisively whether a sentence like ‘A letter is above each number’ is true or false. The original aim was to determine the possible effects of varying the order of the terms in the test sentence: the results were inconclusive. However, the subjects' protocols were of much greater interest. When asked to justify their incorrect solutions, their remarks clearly revealed the operation of irreversible thought processes. Three possible hypotheses about them are considered, and it is argued that one involving dissociation of attention is most plausible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emphasis of this study is on the mechanism through which man structures and restructures his impression of a contention in a problem solving situation with which he is faced. Concept formation being an integral part of the individual's cognitive activities, this paper attempts to clarify the role which cognitive frustration plays in the individual's concept formation or learning. The method of inquiry is that of generating primary data from a laboratory experimental situation in which individual subjects are confronted with a learning situation demanding a sophisticated use of conceptual insight. The results of the experiment show that cognitive frustration tends to regulate the development of problem-solving behavior. In short, the study concludes that cognitive frustration is the psychological mechanism which provides the motivational impetus to man's inherent inclination to conceptualize and, thus, to categorize the feedbacks of his environmental interaction. This frustration augments his learning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an investigation of the relationship between cognitive complexity and the manner in which Ss, from conflicting information, form impressions of a person. It was found that Ss with a high degree of complexity integrate conflicting information into a unified impression, while Ss low in complexity form univalent or unintegrated impressions. These individual differences in impression formation are explained by a consideration of complexity within the framework of dissonance theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of European Journal of Social Psychology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In an earlier study it was shown that the effects of father absence on children's cognitive performances varies with family size and sibling composi- tion. The present paper examined the effects of father night-shift work on the quantitative performances of 100 females. The results showed that children under the age of 9 were deleteriously affected. It followed that night-shift work can be considered as point on a father presence-absence continuum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attribution of responsibility is becoming the subject of increasing research activity. Reasons for such activity appear fairly obvious. It is highly probable that the degree to which one person holds another as responsible for the latter's acts is a prime determinant of much interpersonal behavior. For example, responses to others that are punishing versus rehabilitative, generous versus niggardly, kindly versus hostile, or accepting versus rejecting may all be mediated to a substantial extent by the degree to which one attributes responsibility to another person for the outcome of his acts. The focus of the present paper is on several potential determinants of responsibility attribution and their interactions. In professor E. Walster's study, the stimulus events were described as chance-determined. That is, a person gained, broke even, or lost money on an investment purely as a function of environmental events over which he had no control. In this study, Walster was not able to show a relation between responsibility attribution and outcome seventy.

The article comments on the study of individual differences in cognitive styles. The investigation into the generality of a cognitive style can proceed in a number of directions. One research strategy, risky but holding the promise of the more interesting results, is to extend this generality as far as it will reach through demonstrating it in a large variety of apparently unrelated aspects of cognitive functioning. The present article is concerned with such an exploration of one cognitive variable. This variable has been referred to in a number of ways by various authors, equivalence range, category width or breadth of category, coarseness and fineness of category, etc. The differences between the studies are not, however, confined to terminology. It is not the purpose of this paper to review these studies or to decide which is the proper way to measure individual consistencies in categorizing, this is, at any rate, likely to remain a sterile question. This brief enumeration points, however, to one of the possible reasons for the inconsistencies of the findings and for the low relationships often obtained between performances on the various tasks.

The successful utilization of operant-conditioning procedures to modify verbal behavior has been demonstrated most convincingly in a number of recent investigations. In verbal-conditioning studies, subjects typically are instructed only to emit verbal behavior and the experimenter employs interpersonal stimuli such as "good" or "mmmhmm" to reinforce some preselected verbal response class. Increments in this reinforced response class for subjects judged to be unaware of any relationship between their own behavior and the experimenter's reinforcement have been interpreted as providing evidence that learning has occurred without awareness Such evidence was reported in 29 of 31 verbal-conditioning studies reviewed by researcher L. Krasner. Although the results obtained in verbal-conditioning studies are remarkably consistent, the validity of the interpretation that the empirical findings provide evidence of learning without awareness requires further analysis of the concepts of learning and awareness as employed in these studies. The principal objective of this research paper is to examine the role of awareness in verbal conditioning.

Subjects differing in cognitive style have repeatedly been shown to differ in their task performances under distraction even though they did not differ under neutral, distraction-free conditions. However, the conception of cognitive styles used in these studies suggests that differences in performance also should have occurred in the neutral conditions. The purpose of the present research paper is to demonstrate that significant differences in performances of subjects differing in cognitive style may be obtained under neutral conditions when these differences are expressed as intra-, rather than inter-individual variations in ability. Theoretically, cognitive styles are thought to be a function of common response probabilities or response strengths within certain classes of behaviors. Consequently, a specific style or behavioral pattern occurs whenever a particular class of behavior is elicited. Two cognitive styles and related behavioral classes have been described. One style, termed conceptual versus perceptual-motor dominance, was hypothesized to be limited to conceptual and perceptual-motor tasks which are novel, difficult, or concentration-demanding.

Within the developmental framework of J. Piaget and H. Werner, a number of concepts have been advanced with the goal of clarifying the nature of those cognitive processes whereby knowledge is gained and organized. One such concept, decentering activity, has stemmed primarily from Piaget's investigations of the child's cognitive structuring of the inanimate, physical world. In the present study the concept of decentering activity has been extended to an analysis of the cognitive structuring of social content as revealed in role taking activity. The particular way in which this concept has been extended is embodied in the structure and scoring criteria of a projective technique in which role taking behavior is manifested in fantasy productions. This technique has been termed the Role Taking Task (RTT). The description, rationale, and initial evaluation of the RTT constitute the subject matter of the present paper. Within the developmental framework proposed by Piaget and Werner, cognitive processes are defined as means of gaining and organizing information about the environment and oneself in relation to this environment.

Studies of the effects of individual characteristics upon memory typically are concerned with the selective learning and forgetting of particular details of the original stimulus complex. Relatively little attention has been given to the question of possible reliable individual differences in the degree to which any detail is likely to be forgotten regardless of its semantic content. The purpose of the present paper is to inquire into the reliability of individual differences in leveling tendency, and to examine the relationship between leveling and various personality factors presumed to affect perceptual-cognitive style. The present hypothesis is that individuals indicating a preference for simple phenomenal experiences on this scale have relatively strong leveling tendencies. Leveling in the design recall task was significantly associated with leveling at the story recall task, indicating reliable individual differences in general leveling tendency. Furthermore, as predicted, individuals preferring simple rather than complex experiences tended to have high general leveling tendency scores. The Low-Complex individuals also tended to be highly ethnocentric, but the ethnocentrism measure was not significantly associated with leveling.

The article presents a discussion on the unity of thought and belief. In recent years there have appeared a number of empirical studies on the relation between social belief and cognition. In most of these studies the specific social belief under scrutiny was ethnic prejudice, or the authoritarianism conceived to underlie it. The research program regarding the relations between belief, as measured by the Dogmatism Scale, and thought, as measured by cognitive tasks, is being derived solely from the cognitive model, which attempts to tie together the organization of thought with that of belief. The concepts employed in describing such properties seem to be equally applicable to both lines of inquiry and permit one to flit with relative ease from belief to thought-and back again to belief, so much so that it is becoming increasingly more difficult to delineate where believing ends and thinking begins. The outcome of the cognitive studies discussed in this paper suggests that the model provides a fertile basis for further research relating belief to thought. Thus, the researchers intend to return to Doodleland to test other properties of the thought-belief model.

There is an aspect of behavior prediction which can be classed under the broader meaning of the term clinical intuition. As used in the present discussion, clinical intuition will denote the inferential process producing clinical inferences made by a percipient or receiver person relative to a target person in which the inferences have their source in cues or cognitive processes that the percipient is unable to identify or specify with satisfactory completeness. This includes examples in which the percipient thinks he uses specified cues, but other evidences show that these cannot reasonably account for the accuracy. Obviously, therefore, clinical inferences based upon objective items are not derived intuitively within this connotation of the word. For example, the target person's sex, his age, items of dress, physical appearance, or behavior constitute information from which inferences are routinely drawn; these inferences from obvious cues are not intuitional unless their accuracy or extent exceeds that which can reasonably be accounted for. Intuition is involved either when the available information seems inadequate to produce the inferences drawn by the recipient or when the integrative powers of the percipient seem to exceed ordinary rational analysis. In any case, one of the main problems of this paper is to explore whether the phenomenon exists at all. If it does exist, then it may depend upon principles useful in training, or it may be an invariant example of individual differences and not subject to modification by training.

The article focuses on cognitive attitudes in relation to susceptibility to interference. Many studies have documented the growing conviction that perception in general can be influenced by motivational and situational factors. It is the primary purpose of the paper to show that the search for such generalized relationships bypasses an important source of variables, which condition these relationships. This source is the person himself and the way he is organized to perceive or, more generally, his cognitive organization. A second purpose is to demonstrate the operation of one such variable, which has direct significance for the study of values and needs as they affect perception. Judging sizes, a representative perceptual task, involves not merely the simple matter of comparing retinal-image sizes but is a complex affair in which the entire person can be expected to participate and upon which such extraneous matters as value, need, reward and punishment, may, but need not intrude. This is not to say that the necessary relationship between motivational or personality variables and perception is one of interference, but in the context of most studies in this area and in the investigation to be described, only this aspect of all the possible relationships has been considered.

This article presents a broad conceptual framework within which the how and why of human loquacity (and related processes) may be considered. The increasing amount of published research on human communicative behavior has made the lack of theoretical integration noticeable. In the present discussion, communicative behavior is placed in the context of the current formulations regarding cognitive-perceptual processes conceived as dynamically related to the need-value systems of individuals. Broadly stated, these conceptualizations assert that these systems, which are central in the personality structure of the individual, interacting with the environment, result in instabilities and disequilibriums which are co-ordinated with an increase in tension in the individual, and that cognitive-perceptual processes structure the environment in a specific manner so as to reduce tension. It is essential to the formulations in the present paper that the behavior events in these areas be regarded as dynamically interrelated. An important implication of this assumption is that any change occurring in any subregion will have effects in all other regions.

The article examines the contribution of speech analysis to the scientific study of the processes involved in psychotherapy. Objective measures of the mental processes underlying the act of speech resulting from speech analysis are reported. In this paper, the author discussed the problem of linking these to physiological states, and presented examples of such relationships. The analysis of the rate and nature of speech production in particular is shown to have led to the isolation of speech parameters which are relevant to the investigation of speech as a process reflecting affective and cognitive experiences.

This research paper intends to explore changing cognitive structure as a basis for the "sleeper effect." It will review the growth of the knowledge of the sleeper effect, and will relate this to an empirical exploration of one process by which a motion picture might mediate the influence of subsequent social experience. Knowledge of the sleeper effect can be traced back to some of the earliest experiments using mass communications to change opinions. In 1933, an experiment showed that two movies, neither of which alone resulted in significant attitude change, together seemed to produce such a significant change, and that three pictures, shown at one-week intervals, had a cumulative effect on attitude. When attitudes were remeasured after periods of ten weeks to 19 months, there was measurable persistence of the attitude change. The effort to study persistence of mass media influence led to the discovery of the sleeper effect. The findings of this research suggest that it is indeed possible to change people's cognitive structure with a single mass communication presentation. The data also indicate that changed cognitive structure is associated with changed attitude.

This article presents information on cognitive factors in accounting. Of particular interest to accountants is the possibility that the cognitive characteristics of an information user may affect his perception of what information is important and, hence, may affect how information influences his ultimate behavior. There is considerable support in the psychological literature on human information processing for the existence of such relationships. This paper describes a field study in which the applicability of some of these findings to the administrative information system domain was investigated. The objective of the study was to determine if the cognitive characteristics of a manager affect his perceptions of what information is important to performing his job role. The cognitive characteristic selected for investigation in this study was the level of an individual's intolerance of ambiguity. Its selection was motivated by the fact that it is conceptually related to both dogmatism and integrative complexity, which were the cognitive variables employed in the psychological studies of information processing cited above, and also is a variable of potential significance to accountants in its own right.

Information about several papers discussed at a conference on the differences in cognitive style of children. The cognitive styles of children who has training and knowledge in mathematics and social sciences are also discussed. The study of mathematics in relation to the study of psychology of learning, its design and analysis of mathematical models of learning are given emphasis.